
Qass_ 

Book ±1L&. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



A SCALE OF 
PERFORMANCE TESTS 



A SCALE OF 
PERFORMANCE TESTS 



BY 
RUDOLF PINTNER 

ASSISTANT PBOFESSOB OF PSYCHOLOGY, OHIO STATE UNIVKB8ITT 
AND 

DONALD G. PATERSON 

INSTBnCTOB IN P3TCH0L0QT, DNIVEB8ITY OF KANSAS 




D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 

NEW YORK LONDON 

1917 



tI^^ •• <^^.^-^ 






COPTHIGHT, 1917, BT 

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 



JUN -4 1917 



Printed in the United States of America 



©CI.A467293 



PREFACE 

This book is an attempt on our part to contribute to the 
few scales already in general use another kind of scale for 
the purpose of testing intelligence. The work grew directly 
out of the psychological examination of deaf children, for 
which purpose the ordinary scales for the measurement of 
intelligence were found to be practically useless. It was 
therefore decided to assemble a group of tests which did not 
involve any kind of language response. This work was begun 
in 1914 with the standardization of a few performance tests 
and since then has grown to the present dimensions. The 
work of testing has very largely been done by ourselves. We 
have, however, decided to incorporate in the scale at least 
one test that has been standardized by another worker, namely 
the Seguin Form Board Test as standardized by Sylvester. 
Miss Margaret M. Anderson, Graduate Assistant in the De- 
partment of Psychology, is responsible for the standardiza- 
tion of the Picture Completion Test. Miss Jeannette Reamer, 
Miss Alice E." Beekman, and Miss Lucille Boylan, Graduate 
Students, have helped greatly in the accumulation of data for 
some of the tests. 

We take this opportunity to acknowledge the assistance and 
cooperation on the part of the teachers and principals in the 
schools of Columbus, in which the tests were conducted. In 
particular, we wish to thank Mrs. Scatterday, Principal of 
Northwood School; Miss Gordon, Principal of Ninth Avenue 
School; Miss Thompson, Principal of Second Avenue School; 
Miss Neerermer, Principal of Heyl Avenue School, and Mr. 
Bryant, Principal of Indianola School. 

Rudolf Pintner. 
Donald G. Paterson. 

Columbus, Ohio. 1917. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 

I. INTRODUCTION 



II. 



THE TESTS 
Test 1.— The 
2.— The 
3.— The 
4. — The 
5.— The 
6.— The 
7.— The 
8.— The 
p.— The 
Test 10. — The 
Test 11.— The 
Test 12. — The 
Test 13.— The 
Test 14.— The 
Test 15.— The 



Test 
Test 
Test 
Test 
Test 
Test 
Test 
Test 



Mare and Foal Picture B( 
Seguin Form Board 
Five Figure Board 
Two Figure Board 
Casuist Form Board 
Triangle Test 
Diagonal Test 
Healy Puzzle "A" 
Manikin Test 

Feature Profile Test 
Ship Test 
Picture Completion Test 

Substitution Test 
Adaptation Board 
Cube Test 



III. STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

IV. THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 
The Mare and Foal Test 
The Seguin Form Board 
The Five Figure Board 
The Two Figure Board 
The Casuist Form Board . 
The Triangle Test 
The Diagonal Test . 
Healy Puzzle "A" 



PAGE 
1 

25 
26 
SO 
34 
35 
37 
40 
42 
44 
53 
55 
58 
61 
63 
65 
67 

70 

97 
99 
102 
105 
108 
112 
115 
119 
122 



CONTENTS 

3, 

The Manikin Test 

The Ship Test 

The Picture Completion Test 

The Substitution Test 

The Adaptation Board . 

The Cube Test 



V. THE YEAR SCALE . 

VI. THE MEDIAN MENTAL AGE 

VII. THE POINT SCALE . . . 
Discriminative Capacity of Test . 
Allotment of an Equal Number of Points to 

Each Test ..... 
Points Allotted According to Degree of Dif 

FicuLTY OF Tests .... 

Tentative Point Scale .... 

VIIL THE PERCENTILE METHOD 

The Tables ...... 



IX. ILLUSTRATIVE CASES 
X. CONCLUSION 



INDEX 



PAGE 

127 
131 
132 
133 
135 
136 

139 

151 

159 
162 

168 

169 
173 

184 

187 

202 
210 
215 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE PAGE 

1.— The Mare and Foal Test 27 

2. — The Five Figure Form Board .... 35 

3. — The Two Figure Form Board . ... 36 

4. — The Casuist Form Board .... 38 

5. — The Triangle Test . . . . . .41 

The Diagonal Test 

6.— The Manikin Test 45 

Healy Puzzle "A" 
7.— The Feature Profile Test . . . . .57 

8.— The Ship Test 60 

9. — The Picture Completion Test . ... 62 

10. — The Substitution Test 64 

11. — Record Blank^ Psychological Clinic, Ohio State 

University . . . . . . . .146 

12. — Record Blank, Psychological Clinic, Ohio State 

University . . . . . . . .149 

13. — Record Blank, Psychological Clinic, Ohio State 

University ........ 203 

14. — Record Blank, Psychological Clinic, Ohio State 

University 207 



GRAPHS 

GRAPH PAGE 

. 77 

. 78 

. 79 

, 79 
80 

. 101 



1.— Healy Puzzle "A" (Time) 
2. — The Casuist. Form Board (Time) 
3. — The Casuist Form Board (Errors) 
4. — The Five Figure Form Board (Time) 
5. — The Two Figure Form Board (Time) 
6.— The Mare and Foal Test (Time) 

is 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



7. — The Mare and Foal Test (Errors) . 
8. — The Seguin Form Board (Time) 
9. — The Five Figure Form Board (Time) 
10. — The Five Figure Form Board (Errors) 
11. — The Two Figure Form Board (Time) 
12. — The Two Figure Form Board (Moves) 
13. — The Casuist Form Board (Time) 
14. — The Casuist Form Board (Errors) 
15.— The Triangle Test (Time) 
16.— The Triangle Test (Errors) 
17. — The Diagonal Test (Time) . 
18. — The Diagonal Test (Errors) 
19.— Healy Puzzle "A" (Time) 
20. — Healy Puzzle "A" (Moves) 
21. — The Manikin Test (Score) 
22. — The Feature Profile Test (Time) 
23. — The Ship Test (Score) 
24. — The Picture Completion Test (Score) 
25. — The Substitution Test (Score) 
26. — The Adaptation Board 
27.— The Cube Test . 
28. — Age Norms for Point Scale Method 



PAGE 

102 
104 
106 
108 
110 
110 
113 
113 
117 
117 
120 
120 
124 
126 
127 
129 
131 
132 
134 
135 
137 
181 



A SCALE OF 
PERFORMANCE TESTS 



J 



A SCALE OF 
PERFORMANCE TESTS 

CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

The measurement of intelligence at the present 
time is a well recognized part of psychology. The 
growth of this work and the interest shown in it 
during the last three decades have been truly re- 
markable. We have witnessed the establishment 
of innumerable clinics and the appearance of the 
"mental tester." This growth has been character- 
ized by the practical considerations of clinical ex- 
aminations. The need for a psychological examina- 
tion has been recognized and answers to practical 
situations have been demanded before the psychol- 
ogist has really had time to formulate his own con- 
ceptions of the whole problem. Theoretical con- 
siderations have lagged behind the practical appli- 
cation of mental tests. We have been measuring 
intelligence long before we have decided as to what 
intelligence really is. Far from being a drawback, 
as this at first sight would appear to be, it has in 
fact proved to be of distinct advantage, since the 
measurement of this something, that we have been 

1 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

making, is leading us slowly but surely to a real 
knowledge of what can with profit be called * 'gen- 
eral intelligence." Only after considerable work 
with mental tests did psychologists arrive at the 
now generally accepted definition of intelligence, 
as enunciated by Stern,^ that "Intelligence is a 
general capacity of an individual consciously to 
adjust his thinking to new requirements: it is gen- 
eral mental adaptability to new problems and con- 
ditions of life." Although even this definition of 
intelligence may be modified in the future, it serves, 
at the present time, as a good working hypothesis 
for the selection of tests for mental measurement. 
Other conceptions of general intelHgence are 
numerous and many are very similar. Binet,^ for 
example, says: "It seems to us that in intelligence' 
there is a fundamental faculty, the alteration or 
the lack of which is of the utmost importance for 
practical life. This faculty is judgment, otherwise 
called good sense, initiative, the faculty of adapting 
one's self to circumstances. To judge well, to com- 
prehend well, to reason well, these are the essential 
activities of intelligence." Meumann ^ says general 

^ Stern, W. : The Psychological Methods of Testing Intel- 
ligence, Trs. by G. M. Whipple, Educational Psychology 
Monographs, No, 13, Warwick and York, Baltimore (1914), 
p. 3. 

^ Binet, A., and Simon, Th. : The Development of Intelli- 
gence in Children. Trs. by Kite, Vineland, New Jersey, 191 6, 
p. 42. 

^ Meumann, E. : Experimentelle Padagogik, Vol. ii, Leip- 
zig (1913), p. 102 et seq. 

2 



INTRODUCTION 

intelligence depends on two qualities, "(1) on the 
capacity for independent, productive thought (pro- 
ductive, synthetic thinking) . . . (2) the intensity 
of the whole mental life." Ebbinghaus * makes in- 
telligence include abstraction and the ability to 
compare and contrast. Burt ^ says that the result 
of his wo^k "strongly suggests that it is one feature 
or function of attentive consciousness which forms 
the basis of intelligence, namely,, the power of read- 
justment to relatively novel situations by organiz- 
ing new psycho -physical coordinations." And 
lastly Hart and Spearman ^ look upon general 
intelligence as a "common factor" or "central ten- 
dency" not exactly definable, but entering into all 
sorts of mental activities to a greater or less degree. 
In addition to these hypotheses as to the nature 
of intelligence, theoretical considerations as to the 
growth of intelligence and the general distribution 
of the various grades of intelligence are arising as 
a direct result of the practical work being done. 
Questions as to the rate of increase in normal men- 
tality are being raised,^ and the theoretical assump- 

^ Ebbinghaus, H. : Grundziige der Psychologic, Vol. ii, 
Leipzig (1913), p. 307. 

^ Burt, C. : "Experimental Tests of General Intelligence," 
British Journal of Psychology, Vol. iii (IPOP-IO), pp. 94- 
177. 

' Hart, B., and Spearman, C. : "General Ability, Its Exist- 
ence and Nature," British Journal of Psychology, Vol. v 
(1912-13), pp. 51-84. 

^ Otis, A. S. : "Some Logical Aspects of the Binet Scale," 
Psychological Review, Vol. xxiii, Nos. 2 and S (1916), pp. 
129-152 and 165-179- 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

tions, upon which we base our classification of indi- 
viduals into different groups, are being discussed.^ 

Along with this, the more technical question of 
the standardization of tests is arising and is becom- 
ing more pressing in proportion to the demands for 
finer and finer differential diagnoses on the part of 
the practical worker. 

The first tests made by psychologists were not 
intended as measurements of intelligence. We 
might characterize them as individual tests. They 
seem to have arisen as a direct result of the indi- 
vidual differences noted in the laboratory by the 
experimental psychologist. At first these individ- 
ual differences were a distinct hindrance to the psy- 
chologist, but soon he became interested in them for 
their own sake, and once this occurred we have the 
birth of the test, which is a measurement of the dif- 
ferences between individuals. The differences be- 
tween individuals in sensory discrimination led to 
tests for sensory discrimination, and so on with the 
other divisions of psychology. These first tests are 
concerned with the measurement of specific "facul- 

^ Pintner, R., and Paterson, D. G. : "A Psychological 
Basis for the Diagnosis of Feeble-mindedness," Journal of 
Criminal Larv and Criminology, Vol. vii. No. 1 (I916), pp. 

Kohs, S. C: "The Distribution of the Feeble-minded Ar- 
ranged by Mental Age (Binet)/' Journal of Delinquency, 
Vol. i, No. 2 (1916), pp. 61-71. 

Kuhlmann, F. : "Distribution of the Feeble-minded in 
Society/' Journal of Criminal Larv and Criminology, Vol. vii, 
No. 2 (1916), pp. 205-218; "What Constitutes Feeb'le-minded- 
ness?" Journal of Psycho-A sthenics. Vol. xix, No. 4 (June, 
1915), pp. 214-236. 

4 



INTRODUCTION 

ties" or capacities or abilities. They are tests of the 
different mental processes or of the different states 
of consciousness. There are tests for various motor 
and sensory capacities, for attention and percep- 
tion, for association, for learning and memory, for 
suggestibility, for imagination, and so forth. The 
work with these individual tests has been very con- 
siderable and has thrown a great deal of light upon 
the mental capacities of individuals. It would be 
futile to attempt in this book to give any account 
of the development and scope of the individual test, 
or of the psychologists who have contributed to this 
field.® It is sufficient for our purpose to mention 
these facts in order to note that the scale or group 
of tests for mental measurement has arisen from the 
individual test. Looked at from this point of view 
we may say that the mental scale is merely the 
grouping together of individual tests in order to 
give a more general picture of the mental make-up 
of the individual. Strictly speaking, a scale for the 
measurement of intelligence is more limited in scope 
than the above description would suggest, since it 
omits a great many capacities or abilities that are 
not supposed to be indicative of the mentality of an 
individual. For example, there are tests for the 
ability to discriminate two points on the skin, for 
the ability to discriminate between different shades 

® For a complete account of individual tests of this nature 
and for an extended bibliography, see Whipple, G. M.: Man- 
ual of Mental and Physical Tests, Two Volumes, Warwick 
and York, Baltimore (1914-15). 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

of color, but we do not include such tests in our 
scales of intelligence, because it is not believed, at 
the present time, that such tests have diagnostic 
value for distinguishing between different grades 
of intelligence. Bagley,^^ for example, found "a 
general inverse relation between motor and mental 
ability," although there were numerous individual 
exceptions. 

The idea of using a group of tests for the purpose 
of estimating the intelligence of an individual orig- 
inated with one of the best known workers in the 
field of individual tests, Alfred Binet. He had for 
a long time been interested in the question of tests 
for various abilities and we have a long series of 
articles by him dealing with individual tests. ^^ His 
work gradually led him to a study of individual 
cases, and in summing up the psychological char- 
acteristics of individuals as revealed by mental 
tests he came upon the idea of using a number 
of tests as a measure of the individual's capacity. 
In addition to this his theoretical speculations as 
to what the tests were testing led him to the con- 
clusion that "attention" and "adaptation" were at 
bottom the chief factors that distinguished intelli- 
gent from unintelligent children.^^ And it is to 

^° Bagley, W. C: "On the Correlation of Mental and Motor 
Ability in School Children," American Journal of Psychology, 
Vol. xii (1900-01), pp. 193-205. 

" Binet, A., and Simon, Th. : The Development of Intelli- 
gence in Children, Trs. by Kite, Vineland, New Jersey (1916). 

^^ Binet, A. : "Attention et Adaptation," L'annee psycholo- 
gique. Vol. vi (1900), pp. 248-404. 

6 



INTRODUCTION 

be noted that his definition of attention is very 
different from the ones at present customary in 
psychology and that it approximates very closely 
to the later definitions of intelligence of Stern and 
Meumann. 

All this work of Binet's led him directly to the 
problem of the measurement of intelligence. A 
practical situation presented to him called forth 
the first actual group of tests for differentiating 
between intelligent and unintelligent children. 
This problem was the selection of the most back- 
ward children in the schools for the purpose of 
giving them special instruction. Binet was called 
upon to discriminate between the normal child and 
the backward child, and the question was not 
whether this or that child was better in such a spe- 
cific thing as memory or imagination and so forth, 
but whether the child was in general weaker in his 
intellectual endowment than the average child of 
his age. Binet, therefore, took the next logical 
step in advance of the position that he had reached 
in his work with individual tests. He discarded the 
specific test for the specific ability and took a group 
of tests which seemed to cover in general the chief 
psychological characteristics that go to make up 
intelligence. And, furthermore, as the norm or 
standard of intelligence he took what the average 
child at each age could do. 

These two points, the use of a group of tests and 
the average performance at each age as a stand- 
ard of measurement, form the basic principles upon 

7 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

which all our measuring scales of intelligence now 
rest. For this happy combination we have to thank 
the genius of Binet. 

At first the group of tests used by Binet was not 
arranged according to years, but soon there ap- 
peared the Binet- Simon Scale in the form that we 
now know it/^ From this time on we can speak 
of a scale for the measurement of intelligence. The 
recognition of the value of this scale was imme- 
diate and wide-spread. It was used extensively 
in France and in other countries, and presently 
we have the appearance of scales adapted to the 
different countries in which they were used. In 
America Goddard's ^* Revision appeared early 
and was and is still extensively used. A transla- 
tion from the French was made by Town.^^ In 
Germany the scale was adapted by Bobertag.^^ 
In England work was done by Johnston,^ ^ and 

^^ Binet, A., et Simon, Th.: "Le developpement de I'intelli- 
gence chez les enfants/' L'annee psychologique. Vol. xiv 
(1908), pp. 1-94.. 

^* Goddard, H. H. : "The Binet-Simon Measuring Scale 
of Intelligence, Revised," Training School Bulletin, Vol. viii, 
(1911), pp. 56-62. 

^^ Binet, A., and Simon, Th.: A Method of Measuring the 
Development of the Intelligence of Young Children, Trs. by 
Town, Courier (1913). 

^^ Bobertag, O. : "Kurze Anleitung zur Ausf iihrung der 
Intelligenzpriifung nach Binet und Simon," Institut der Ge- 
sellschaft fur Psychologische Experifnente (1913), Nr. 8. 

^^ Johnston, K. L. : "M. Binet's Method for the Measure- 
ment of Intelligence; Some Results," Journal of Experimental 
Pedagogy, Vol. i (1911), pp. 24-31; and also "The Measure- 
ment of Intelligence; Binet-Simon Tests," same journal. Vol. 
i (1911), pp. 148-151. 

8 



INTRODUCTION 

more recently a new adaptation for English use 
has been proposed by Winch.^^ Other American 
adaptations that were proposed are those of Kuhl- 
mann ^^ and Wallin.^'^ 

Within a relatively short time the literature deal- 
ing with the Binet-Simon Scale grew to immense 
proportions,^^ and the uses to which it was put were 
numerous. It found early and wide-spread use in 
juvenile courts, in state surveys of feeble-minded- 
ness, in the selection of children for special classes 
and to some extent in helping to solve other prob- 
lems of the school. Each one of these varied uses 
of the scale has a literature of its own and it would 
lead us too far afield to enter into any one or all 
of these aspects of the measurement of intelligence. 

As was to be -expected, the use of the scale and 
the abuse of it in some quarters aroused a mass 
of constructive and destructive criticism. The re- 
sult of this criticism on the constructive side led to 
a sharper and more definite formulation of the 

" Winch, W. H. : "Binet's Mental Tests ; What They Are 
and What We Can Do with Them," a series of articles in 
Child Study, Vols, vi, vii, and viii. 

^^ Kuhlmann, F.: "A Revision of the Binet-Simon System 
for Measuring the Intelligence of Children," Journal of 
Psycho- A sthenics, Monograph. Supplement, No. 1 (1912), 
p. 41. 

2°Wallin, J. E. W.: Experimental Studies of Mental De- 
fectives: A Critique of the Binet-Simon Tests, Warwick and 
York, Baltimore (1912). 

21 For the literature up to 1914, see Kohs, S. C. : "The 
Binet-Simon Measuring Scale: An Annotated Bibliography," 
Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. v (1914), pp. 215- 
224, 279-290, 335-346. 

9 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

principles involved in the work of mental meas- 
urement. It is during this period of criticism that 
we have arrived at a clearer understanding of what 
we mean by intelligence, and of the requirements 
that a test must possess in order to be an adequate 
test of intelligence. We are more generally agreed 
now as to what intelligence is and we are using 
this as a criterion for the choice of tests for scales 
of mental measurement. Certain of the tests in 
the original Binet Scale have been criticized se- 
verely in the light of this newer conception of 
mental measurement. It is questioned in some 
quarters as to whether tests of specific pieces of in- 
formation such as the child may be taught in school 
or in the home can with justice be included in our 
scales, since the latter are frankly trying to meas- 
ure innate or native endowment rather than any 
particular bit of knowledge acquired by specific 
training. Binet himself raised this question in his 
revision of the original scale, and Stern enters into 
a discussion of the lack of agreement between tests 
of intelligence and school performance, bringing 
out clearly the difference between general intelli- 
gence and acquired knowledge. Other writers ^^ 
have pointed out how certain tests of the scale de- 
pend upon knowledge acquired through experience, 
while other tests seem to be unaffected by the sub- 

^~ Pintner, R., and Paterson, D. G. : "Experience and the 
Binet-Simon Tests/' Psychological Clinic, Vol. viii. No. 7 
(1914), pp. 197-200; also, by the same writers, "The Factor 
of Experience in Intelligence Testing," Psychological Clinic, 
Vol. ix, No. 2 (1915), pp. 44-50. 

10 



INTRODUCTION 

ject's amount of experience. On the other hand, 
the difficulty of finding anything that is not influ- 
enced by education in school is well recognized and 
we are forced to take for granted the acquisition 
of such general abilities as reading or writing in 
children that grow up in the ordinary civilized 
community. 

Again, the demand on the part of the practical 
worker for more and more accurate diagnoses has 
raised the whole question of the accurate placing 
of tests in the scale and the accurate evaluation 
of the responses made by the child. In general 
this may be termed the problem of standardization. 
This question of standardization has led to the two 
latest revisions of the Binet Scale, namely, the 
Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet- 
Simon Scale by Terman,^^ and the Point Scale 
by Yerkes, Bridges and Hardwick.^* The Stan- 
ford Revision adheres more closely to the original 
Binet Scale and makes no departure from the clas- 
sification of tests according to age. The scale adds 
certain tests to those originally used by Binet. It 
makes its chief contribution, however, in the stand- 
ardization of the tests themselves and in the use 
of the intelligence quotient as the index of the 
mentality of the examinee. 

^^ Terman, Lewis M. : The Measurement of Intelligence, 
Riverside Text-books in Education, Houghton, Mifflin Com- 
pany (1916). 

2* Yerkes, B,. M., Bridges, J. W., and Hardwick, R. S.: 
A Point Scale for Measuring Mental Ability, Warwick and 
York, Baltimore (1915). 

11 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

The Point Scale, above referred to, while mak- 
ing use of a great many of the original Binet tests, 
differs considerably in the method adopted to ar- 
rive at a measurement of the subject's intelligence. 
It discards the grouping of tests according to age 
and adopts the scoring of responses by means of 
allotting a certain number of points to each test. 
Like the Stanford Revision, it also rejects the men- 
tal age as an adequate statement of the mentality 
of the case, and proposes the coefficient of mental 
ability instead. This coefficient is the ratio of the 
score made to the average score for a child of 
the age of the individual examined, just as the in- 
telligence quotient is the ratio of the mental age 
to the chronological age of the child. 

These two scales may be taken to represent, for 
America at least, the result of the constructive 
work done on the basis of the original Binet tests. 
Although the Stanford Revision has introduced a 
great many new tests and the Point Scale a few, 
yet the general nature of the tests remains much 
the same as those originally proposed by Binet. 
While this work has been going on, there has been 
in addition another phase of criticism of the orig- 
inal Binet Scale that has been directed particularly 
against the great number of tests in the scale that 
require language responses. This criticism of the 
scale was made by Ayres ^^ shortly after the scale 

^^ Ayres, L. P. : "The Binet-Simon Measuring Scale for 
Intelligence: Some Criticisms and Suggestions," Psychologi- 
cal Clinic, Vol. v (191 1), pp. 187-196. 

12 



INTRODUCTION 

had come into general use. Just how much the 
ability to handle language is indicative of intelli- 
gence is the question at issue. Have we a valid 
test when ability to pass it depends not merely upon 
comprehension of language, but also upon the abil- 
ity to frame an adequate language response? This 
language difficulty, inherent in the Binet Scale and 
in all the revisions of it, became very pronounced 
as soon as the use of the scale spread to workers 
in various fields of practical work. The clinical 
psychologist in the large city was face to face with 
the problem of the foreign child, the speech de- 
fective, the deaf child and other children with lan- 
guage difficulties. It was obvious, from the begin- 
ning, that the Binet Scale was inadequate for the 
mental examination of such cases. Other tests not 
involving language were introduced and this gave 
rise to the type of test now generally known as the 
performance test. The essential characteristic of 
this type of test is that it shall not require any kind 
of a language response on the part of the child for 
an adequate performance of the test. 

An excellent group of performance tests which 
had been found of practical value in the diagnosis 
of cases was described by Healy and Fernald,^^ 

Kuhlmann, F. : "A Reply to Dr. L. P. Ayres' Criticism of 
the Binet and Simon System for Measuring the Intelligence 
of Children," Journal of Psycho- A sthenics. Vol. xvi (IQH), 
pp. 58-67. 

2« Healy, W., and Fernald, G. M.: "Tests for Practical 
Mental Classification," Psychological Monographs, Vol. xiii, 
No. 2, Whole No. 54 (191 1). 

13 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

and we have incorporated some of these tests in 
the present scale. It was the problem of the for- 
eign child and the child with language difficulties 
that forced Healy to have recourse to other tests 
in addition to those of the regular scales, in order 
to arrive at a better understanding of the men- 
tality of the children examined. Healy did not 
attempt to group his tests in the form of a scale, 
but simply used them as additional aids for di- 
agnostic purposes. Some of these tests have been 
extensively used by other workers, and partial 
standardizations of some of them have been made. 
A discussion of these standardizations will be given 
later. 

Confronted with the problem of testing non- 
English speaking immigrants at Ellis Island, 
Knox^^ found it impossible to use scales in which 
language responses were required, even though the 
services of an interpreter might be used. He de- 
vised a series of performance tests, which he con- 
structed into a kind of scale for the purpose of esti- 
mating the mentality of the immigrant. Knox's 
scale is admittedly rough and lacking in standardi- 
zation. Many of the tests are excellent and we 
have included some of them in the present scale. 
These two groups of tests collected by Knox and 
by Healy have proved to be very valuable; but 

-^ Knox, H. A. : "A Scale, Based on the Work at Ellis 
Island, for Estimating Mental Defect," Journal of the Amer- 
ican Medical Association, Vol. Ixii (March 7, 1914), pp. 741- 

747. 

U 



INTRODUCTION 

there was lacking in both cases an adequate stand- 
ardization, and this has prevented an understanding 
of the meaning of any specific performance on the 
tests. 

In the case of the writers ^^ themselves, the ordi- 
nary scales of intelligence were found absolutely 
inadequate to test the mentality of deaf children. 
They were forced to look around and to devise 
performance tests for this purpose. 

These various practical considerations have led 
us to recognize the necessity of developing a scale 
of performance tests. Such a scale should prove 
of distinct advantage in the work of measuring in- 
telligence. It may be used as a supplementary 
scale in addition to the ordinary scales of intelli- 
gence. If it is true that the Binet Scale rates 
the child with superior language ability too high, 
then a performance scale used as a supplement to 
the Binet Scale should serve as a corrective. The 
Binet Scale and its revisions do not consist en- 
tirely of language tests, but the number of tests 
calling for a language response is very great and 
it may be, as some workers have felt, that too much 
credit is given for this type of response. Lan- 
guage ability is not always directly correlated with 
general intelligence. Healy has called a certain 
type of cases "verbalist," because this type is char- 
acterized by an ability to handle language decidedly 

28 Pintner, R., and Paterson, D. G.: "The Binet Scale and 
the Deaf Child," Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 
vi (1915), pp. 201-210. 

15 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

above its ability along other lines. As Healy ^'^ 
says: "On account of their ability to handle lan- 
guage well the members of this group are not prop- 
erly placed by the ordinary tests of social inter- 
course. The common method of passing judgment 
on people is, of course, through conversation. One 
asks questions and if one gets answers that follow 
property, that are consequential and coherent, why 
then without more ado one infers the answerer to 
be practically normal. The give-and-take conver- 
sational method of the court room may be offered 
in illustration," and again further on, "One of the 
weak points of the Binet system is that it so greatly 
calls for language responses; those who have good 
language ability easily grade proportionately 
higher." A better understanding of the mentality 
of this verbalist type might be arrived at by a 
performance scale used as a supplement to the or- 
dinary scale of intelligence. Because our scale of 
performance tests might be used in this supple- 
mentary way, we decided not to include in the 
present scale any tests of the performance type 
already included in the Binet Scale. 

For the testing of non-English speaking children 
coming from homes where the English language is 
not customarily spoken, the advantage of a per- 
formance scale is, of course, obvious. It is absurd 
to pretend to measure the mentality of a foreign 
child by means of our present scales. This has been 

^^ Healy, W. : The Individual Delinquent, Little, Brown 
and Company (1915), p. 473 et seq. 

16 



INTRODUCTION 

done repeatedly in the past by many careless work- 
ers, who seem to look upon the Binet Scale as an 
infallible measuring rod which can be applied with 
a minimum of critical judgment both as to the 
method of procedure and the evaluation of results. 
It is to be hoped that the tentative scale of per- 
formance tests here presented will help workers 
to arrive at a more adequate measurement of the 
mentality of the foreign child. The difference be- 
tween the English speaking and the non-English 
speaking children tested by Yerkes and Bridges 
was shown to be considerable as judged by their 
scores on the point scale. Recognizing the number 
of language tests included in the scale the authors 
presented norms for both groups, so that future 
cases might be judged in the light of the group 
to which they belonged. No one would feel justi- 
fied in concluding from the scores made by these 
two groups that the non-English speaking group 
was lacking in mentality as compared with the Eng- 
lish speaking group to the extent suggested by the 
difference in their scores. Kent,^^ after comment- 
ing on the Yerkes racial norms, says: "In testing 
children of immigrants by groups, it might be pos- 
sible to make allowance in the final scoring of re- 
sults for this disadvantage; but if children are to 
be tested as individual cases this would not be a safe 
plan to follow, inasmuch as the deficiency in the 

^° Kent, G. H. : "A Graded Series of Geometrical Puzzles," 
Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Febru- 
ary, 1916), p. 41. 

17 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

language might be so marked as to entirely in- 
validate the results for the particular child in 
question." 

Closely allied to the problem of the non-English 
speaking child is the problem of the speech de- 
fective. It is doubtless true that a great many 
speech defectives are mentally backward, but there 
are many who are not, and who are at present be- 
ing misjudged by the results of tests made by 
means of the standard intelligence scales. At 
any rate, we cannot arrive at an adequate meas- 
urement of such cases with our present scales, and 
the need for a performance scale is obvious. 

We feel also that a performance scale will be 
useful in arriving at a better measurement of the 
mentality of children coming from different lan- 
guage environments. We mean by this that there 
are certain types of homes in which the child learns 
very little in the way of language. There are no 
books and very little reading is indulged in. On 
the whole, it may be true that such homes indicate 
a lower mentality of the people, but this is not 
true in every case. There are cases, again, where 
children have never learned to read or write, and 
this not from inability but from lack of opportunity 
to learn. It is clear that we cannot arrive at a 
just measure of the mentality of these cases with 
the present scales of measurement. Even if we 
were to take the extreme position and maintain that 
all such cases are indicative of some slight degree 
of backwardness in mental development, we would 

18 



INTRODUCTION 

be penalizing them too severely in judging them by- 
means of language tests. They may be backward, 
but the real extent of their backwardness will be 
measurable by means of a performance scale rather 
than by means of a scale including language 
tests. 

Comparing the mentality of dependent children in 
charitable homes with children in the ordinary pub- 
lic schools, it was found ^^ that the dependent chil- 
dren fell below the school children to a much greater 
extent on tests involving language than they did 
on tests of mechanical ingenuity, and we venture 
to suggest that the real difference in the mentality 
of the two groups of children was expressed by the 
difference on the performance tests rather than by 
the difference on the tests involving language. 
That children in better class schools always test 
higher on the Yerkes Scale and on the Binet Scale 
than do children in schools in poorer environments 
is doubtless due to the better mentality of the 
former group, but some of the superiority shown 
by the former group may be due to their superior 
language environment.^^ 

Lastly, a scale of performance tests is a sine qua 

^^ Stenquist, J. L., Thorndike, E. L., and Trabue, M. R.: 
"The Intellectual Status of Children Who Are Public 
Charges/' Archives of Psychology, No. 33 (1915). 

32 Yerkes, R. M., Bridges, J. W., and Hardwick, R. S.: A 
Point Scale for Measuring Mental Ability (1915), p. 75 
et seq. 

Bridges, J. W., and Coler, L.: "The Relation of Intelli- 
gence to Social Status," Psychological Review, Vol. xxiv. No. 
1 (1917), pp. 1-31. 

19 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

non in the measurement of the mentality of the 
deaf. Here we have a group of individuals com- 
pletely shut off from hearing language and for 
that reason laboring under a language difficulty 
that only in rare cases is surmounted to the extent 
of making them comparable in language ability 
to ordinary hearing individuals. Any kind of 
test involving written or spoken language cannot 
be used as a test of their mentality.^^ If we em- 
ploy such tests for measuring the mentality of the 
deaf and use the standardizations obtained from 
hearing children, we will not be measuring men- 
tality but merely differences in language ability. 
There may be a greater percentage of feeble- 
mindedness among the deaf than among the hear- 
ing, but the fact that a deaf child does not meas- 
ure up to the language standards of a hearing child 
is no indication of mental deficiency. For the 
deaf some kind of performance scale such as we 
have devised is necessary in order to arrive at a 
rough measure of their mentality. Our perform- 
ance scale was specifically devised with the deaf 
child in mind.^* Indeed, it has been so constructed 
that practically no instructions need to be given to 

"^ Pintner, R., and Paterson, D. G. : "The Ability of Deaf 
and Hearing Children to Follow Printed Directions," The 
Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. xxiii, No. 4 (1916), pp. 477-497; 
"A Measurement of the Language Ability of Deaf Children," 
Psychological Review, Vol. xxiii. No. 6 (IQlB), pp. 41S-436. 

^'^ The writers will publish shortly, in a book entitled "The 
Psychology of the Deaf," the results of and the methods for 
the application of this performance scale to deaf children, 
together with norms for deaf children already tested. 

20 



INTRODUCTION 

the child with the exception of such as can be made 
by means of natural gestures. 

For all these groups of children — the foreign 
child, the speech defective, the deaf child and so 
on — a scale of performance tests is the only ade- 
quate means for the measurement of mentality. 
The language factor must be omitted and our esti- 
mate of mentality must be based upon what any 
of these kinds of children can do as compared with 
the normal hearing and speaking child. 

The Selection of Tests. In selecting perform- 
ance tests for this scale, the object wa^_to_get as 
many different kinds of tests, as possible, so that 
alTthe various factors entering into the complex 
known as intelligence might be brought into play. 
It was not our aim to make any theoretical analysis 
of the various capacities or abilities that might be 
included in such a complex, but rather to choose 
tests that seemed to call forth different types of 
response, realizing that the response called forth 
in any specific instance might be variously de- 
scribed as involving memory or attention or some- 
thing else, or all of these things together. 

In addition to this principle in the selection of 
tests, there was the other principle which follows 
from our general definition of intelligence as the 
capacity of adjusting to relatively new situations, 
the principle, namely, that each test should pre- 
sent a relatively new situation to the child. AJ~J 
test must not demand the performance of a specific 
activity that is likely to have been learned by the 

21 



/ 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

child. Familiarity or unfamiliarity with the gen- 
eral type of response required by a specific test 
is always a relative matter. We could not, for 
example, exclude all picture block tests simply 
because some children are more familiar with this 
type of toy than other children. What was done, 
however, was not to include as a test any well- 
known article which was already in common use as a 
child's toy or plaything. From this point of 
view a recently devised test might be criticized 
as being a toy in very common use among 
children.^^ 
r A third criterion in the selection of tests was that 

^ no verbal instructions should be necessary in order 
to give the tests. All of the tests in our scale, 
with a few minor exceptions, can be called self- 
explanatory. The situation itself, calls for some 
response without the necessity for any verbal in- 
structions on the part of the examiner. A sign to 
go ahead quickly is all that is necessary. Natu- 
rally in giving the test to hearing children the ex- 
aminer will say something, but what he says is 
not essential for the understanding of the test. If 
the examiner in testing a hearing child were not 
to say anything, he would introduce an embarrass- 
ing and abnormal element into the situation. It is 
for this reason that in the directions for the tests 
verbal instructions for the examiner are given. 
These are not necessary and in testing deaf or for- 

^^ Kelley, T. L. : "A Constructive Ability Test," Journal of 
Educational Psychology, Vol. vii (I916), pp. I-I6. 

22 



INTRODUCTION 

eign children can be omitted without changing in 
any way the nature of the tests. In some of the 
tests, however, in testing deaf or foreign children, 
preliminary practice is necessary, as in the Substi- 
tution Test, and this preliminary procedure has 
been standardized and will be published in our book 
on the psychology of the deaf. 

While the work of standardization was in prog- 
ress some tests, which we had originally chosen, 
were rejected since they did not seem to be giv- 
ing satisfactory norms. One of these tests was 
Knox's Imbecile Form Board. Another was a 
type of Seguin Form Board constructed by our- 
selves. This differed somewhat from the one in 
common use and was abandoned because it showed 
no superiority over the standard Seguin Board 
and because our data would, therefore, be incom- 
parable to the data already gathered by other 
workers. We have contented ourselves with using 
the data gathered by Sylvester with the Seguin 
Form Board. 

The tests chosen which we believe fulfill the above 
requirements are as follows : 

1. The Mare and Foal Picture Board. A modifi- 

cation of the original as designed by Healy. 

2. The Seguin Form Board. Twitmeyer's adap- 

tation of the Goddard Board or the God- 
dard Board itself. 

3. The Five Figure Board, devised by Paterson. 

4. The Two Figure Board, devised by Pintner. 

23 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS ' 

5. The Casuist Form Board, a copy of the orig- 

inal board devised by Knox.^'^ 

6. The Triangle Test, devised by Gwyn. 

7. The Diagonal Test, devised by Kempf. 

8. Healy Construction Puzzle A, devised by 

Healy. 

9. The Manikin Test, devised by Pintner. ,^.^ 

10. The Feature Profile Test, devised by Knox 

and Kempf.^^ 

11. The Ship Test, devised by Glueck. 

12. The Picture Completion Test, devised by 

Healy. 

13. The Substitution Test, devised by Woodworth 

and Wells. 

14. The Adaptation Board, devised by Goddard. 

15. The Cube Test, devised by Knox and modified 

by Pintner. 

Note. Tests Nos. S, 4, 5, 9, 10, and 11 can be obtained 
from A. P. Freund, Mechanic, Ohio State University, Colum- 
bus. All the other tests can be obtained from C. H. Stoelting 
Co., Chicago, Illinois. Test 15, as supplied by Stoelting, 
will not be suitable for Pintner's modification, which merely 
requires five cubes of the same size and color. The writers 
have generally made use of the Binet cubes, but any similar 
blocks, all of the same color and size, will do. 



^^ This board was made by the writers before the Stoelting 
Company supplied Knox's tests. Our board is larger than 
the one supplied by Stoelting and differs in some details. 
Our norms cannot he said to apply to the hoard manufactured 
hy Stoelting. 

^■^ This test also was made by the writers before the Stoel- 
ting Company supplied Knox's tests. It differs somewhat 
from the one supplied by Stoelting, and our norms can only 
with certainty apply to our form of the test. 

24 



CHAPTER II 

THE TESTS 

This chapter contains a description of the tests 
used, and they are described in the order in which 
they were generally presented to the children. The 
sequence here given is recommended for other 
workers. Similar tests have been grouped to- 
gether. The first test (Mare and Foal) is one 
of the easiest and is of the picture form board 
variety] The nature of the performance required 
is understood by almost all children without verbal 
instructions. A glance at the board with the pieces 
out is enough to call forth the response of filling in 
the pieces. After this follow Tests 2 to 8, which 
are all of the form board character. They require 
the insertion of blocks in appropriate spaces and, 
increasing in difficulty as they do, the child is led 
naturally on from one to the other with a mini- 
mum of instructions. Tests 9 and 10 can hardly 
be called form board tests, but the nature of the 
performance is similar. This time the child sees 
that he must fit things together, but without the 
help of spaces into which the parts must fit. Test 
11 demands the construction of a picture, continu- 
ing the idea of making up something, the parts of 

25 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

which are before the child at the beginning of the 
test. Test 12 demands the fitting in of blocks, but 
this time there must be the selection of appropriate 
blocks from a large number of others. Test 13 is 
radically different and requires new instructions. 
It is at this point that the material deviates radi- 
cally from the form board type. The last two tests 
(14 and 15) are likewise totally different from the 
others, but by this time the child is well adjusted 
to the examination. 

Test 1. The Mare and Foal Picture Board 

(a) Description. This test is a slight modification 
of the one devised by Healy.^ It is a board meas- 
uring 29 by 24.5 centimeters and 1 centimeter thick, 
upon which a colored picture is pasted. The pic- 
ture represents a mare and foal in a field with two 
sheep lying down and three chickens in the fore- 
ground. In the background two houses are seen 
in the distance. Eleven pieces have been cut out of 
the picture and the pieces are of different shapes. 
They represent certain parts of the animals or of 
the scene. The modification of the original board 
as made by us is the omission of the four geometri- 
cal pieces at the top of the picture. After some 
preliminary experimentation these four pieces were 

^ Healy, W., and Fernald, G. M. : "Tests for Practical Men- 
tal Classification," Psychological Monographs, Vol. xiii, No. 
2. A picture is shovm in Figure 3, differing from the test as 
supplied by the makers. No reference is made to the test in 
the text. 

26 



THE TESTS 

glued into place and not used for testing purposes. 
Two of these pieces are triangles and two are some- 
what in the shape of a diamond. On Figure 1, 
giving a picture of the test, these four pieces can 
be discerned. Our reasons for the omission of these 




Tig. 1.— The Mare and Foal Test. 

27 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

four pieces from the test were two. In the first 
place, they diif er radically in nature from the other 
pieces and are decidedly more difficult. The rest 
of the pieces are not simple geometrical forms, but 
are more or less shaped according to the part of 
the animal or scene which they represent. These 
four pieces are simple geometrical forms and the 
shape does not in any way correspond to the pic- 
ture pasted upon it. We found that younger chil- 
dren had great difficulty with these four pieces and 
that the insertion of them presented an entirely dif- 
ferent problem from the insertion of the other 
pieces. In the one case the child may be guided 
by the picture on the cut-out as well as by the 
shape. In the case of these four pieces it is prac- 
tically shape alone that is the determining factor in 
placing them correctly. 

In the second place Test 6 (Triangle) presents 
the problem of inserting two pieces together to 
make a triangle, like the two pieces in the Mare 
and Foal Test. Having this other test (the Tri- 
angle Test) , it would be useless to demand the same 
performance twice. It seemed wiser to us to de- 
mand this kind of performance as a separate 
test, in view of the fact that the type of per- 
formance required is radically different in nature 
from the insertion of differently shaped cut- 
outs. 

This test was suggested first by Healy,^ and 

-Healj, W. and Fernald, G. M.: Op. cit., pp. 12-13. 

28 



THE TESTS 

without modification it has been used by Schmitt,^ 
who gives results for 132 cases. These results are 
not comparable with ours, since our modification of 
the test has made it very much easier. Healy * has 
used these cases of Schmitt as tentative norms for 
the test, and his norms are also not comparable with 
ours. 

(b) Method. The method of giving the test is 
simple. The board is placed in front of the child 
with the nine pieces scattered at the top, as in 
Figure 1 (page 27). The instructions are: "Put 
these pieces in the right places as quickly as you 
can, without making any mistakes." The stop 
watch is started and the time for the complete per- 
formance is taken. During the performance the 
examiner counts the number of errors. An error 
is any attempt on the part of the child to place 
a piece in a WTong space. If the child holds a 
piece over a space hesitatingly without bringing 
it down to touch the board, we have not counted 
this as an error. The child is allowed to work at 
the test for 5 minutes. If he fails to complete 
the test within 5 minutes the examiner should pro- 
ceed to the next test. This limit of 5 minutes 
is put upon almost all of our tests for practical 
reasons. Otherwise, with some children the ex- 

^ Schmitt, C. : "Standardization of Tests for Defective 
Children," Psychological Monographs, Vol. xix. No. S, Whole 
No. 83 (1915), p. 86 et seq. The plate showing this test 
corresponds to the board used by us. 

* Healy, W. : The Individual Delinquent, Little, Brown and 
Co. (1915), Plate I, opp. p. 86, and p. 106. 

29 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

amination would stretch over too long a period. 
(c) Record. The record shows the time for the 
complete performance and the number of errors. 
D.N.C. (Did Not Complete) is recorded if the 
child fails to finish the test within the 5 minute 
limit. 

Test 2. The Seguin Form Board 

(a) Description. Although the writers gathered 
considerable data with a Seguin Form Board of 
their own construction, it was decided to abandon 
this in place of the standard Seguin Form Board 
in view of the large amount of data already gath- 
ered by other workers. It was also deemed advis- 
able to incorporate into our group of performance 
tests a test that has already been standardized and 
that is already familiar to, and in the possession of, 
a large number of workers. 

Sylvester's ^ standardization of the Seguin Form 
Board is the one chosen by the writers for inclusion 
in their group of tests, because the author has pub- 
lished his data in such form as to make possible the 
rlecessary calculations for their purposes. 

Sylvester's ® description of the board is as fol- 
lows: "The ten geometrical figures, as nearly uni- 
form in size as their variety of form will, allow, 
are cut through an oak board 20 x 14 x % inches. 
This oak board is glued to a soft wood board of 

^ Sylvester, R. H.: "The Form Board Test," Psychological 
Monographs, Vol. xv, No. 4, Whole No. 65 (1913). 
^Sylvester: Op. cit., p. 1. 

30 



THE TESTS 

the same length and breadth, % inch thick. The 
result is a thick board of moderate weight with a 
hard oak surface in which the ten forms appear 
as shallow holes or recesses. About the edge is 
placed an oak strip, l%x% inches, fitting flush 
with the soft wood back and forming a 14 i^^^h 
raised edge about the oak surface. Corresponding 
to the ten recesses are ten walnut blocks, % inch in 
thickness, each of which fits loosely into its corre- 
sponding recess. The thickness being more than 
twice the depth of the recesses, the blocks can be 
easily grasped and removed. The board and the 
blocks are finished in their natural oak and walnut 
colors and the recesses are painted black. The 
whole is carefully finished in order to give it an 
attractive appearance — an important feature in a 
mental testing device. This description applies to 
what may be called the standard form board — the 
type now in most general use." Although this de- 
scription of the form board used by Sylvester dif- 
fers slightly from that of the Goddard Form Board, 
as manufactured by Stoelting, the writers are in- 
clined to believe that the two boards are sufficiently 
alike to warrant the use of Sylvester's norms for 
Goddard's Board.^ Of course, we cannot be cer- 

"^ For other descriptions of the form board and for work 
done with it see: 

Wallin, J. E. W. : "Age Norms of Psycho-Motor Capac- 
ity," Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. vii. No. 1 
(1916), pp. 17-24. 

Norsworthy, N.: "The Psychology of Mentally Deficient 
Children," Archives of Psychology, No. 1 (1906), The Science 

31 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

tain that norms obtained by means of the God- 
dard Board would be identical with those obtained 
by Sylvester. The boards may vary slightly in 
ease or difficulty. We do not believe that any 
such variation, if it exists, can be very great in 
view of the great similarity in the age averages ob- 
tained by Goddard and by Sylvester.^ The dif- 
ference between any two averages for ages six 
to twelve inclusive is never greater than 3 sec- 
onds. 

No detailed description of the form board, be- 
yond what we have quoted from Sylvester, is 
necessary. 

(b) Method. Sylvester's method of procedure 
in giving the test is to be recommended since we 
are using his norms. To quote :^ 

"The form board lies horizontally on a table, 
its lower edge even with the edge of the table 

Press, pp. '25-'26. In this work it is called the Block 
Test. 

Young, H. A.: "The Witmer Form Board," Psychological 
Clinic, Vol. x. No. 4 (1916), pp. 93-111. 

Goddard, H. H.: "The Form Board as a Measure of Intel- 
lectual Development in Children," Training School Bulletin, 
Vol. 9 (1912), pp. 49-52. 

Pintner, R., and Paterson, D. G. : "The Form Board Ability 
of Young Deaf and Hearing Children," Psychological Clinic, 
Vol. ix, No. 8 (1916), pp. 234-237. 

Wallin, J. E. W. : "Experimental Studies of Mental De- 
fectives," Educational Psychology Monographs, No. 7, War- 
wick and York, Baltimore (1912). 

Whipple, G. M.: Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, 
Vol. i, Warwick and York (1914). 

* Sylvester : Op. cit., p. 46, footnote 4. 

^ Idem, p. 44, 

32 



THE TESTS 

next to which the child stands. The table must 
be low enough to allow him to lean well over 
the board and to look down upon its center. 
The blocks are placed in three piles on the 
table next to the upper edge of the board, no block 
in the pile nearest its recess, the lozenge and the 
elongated hexagon not in the same layer, and the 
star in the lower layer. This is the arrangement 
at the beginning of each of three trials. The child 
is introduced to the test with no introduction con- 
cerning it except, 'Let us see how quickly you can 
put the blocks into place.' His first reactions and 
his behavior until he succeeds in getting the blocks 
into place or fails are carefully studied. After this 
first trial he is given any instruction necessary to 
make him understand where the blocks belong and 
that he is to replace them as quickly as possible. 
Then he is given a second and third trial, in which 
he is encouraged and urged in every way to make 
the best record of which he is capable. These last 
two trials are timed with a stop watch and the short- 
est of the two records is taken as the child's form 
board index." 

In actual practice the writers have always taken 
a record of the three trials, and the shortest of the 
three trials has been used as the child's form board 
index. 

(c) Record. A record of the time of the three 
trials is kept. For practical testing it does not seem 
necessary to keep a record of the number of errors. 
The time limit is 5 minutes. 

33 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Test 3. The Five Figure Boaed 

(a) Description. The Five Figure Board, de- 
vised by Paterson, is a form board 1.2 centimeter 
thick, measuring 57.4 x 20.3 centimeters, with five 
cut-outs. The length of the cut-outs varies from 
about 7 to 14 centimeters. It was devised with the 
idea of making a form board somewhat more com- 
plex than the Seguin Form Board. For this rea- 
son each one of the cut-outs is divided into two 
pieces, with the exception of one which is divided 
into three pieces, whereas in the Seguin Board each 
one of the cut-outs is one entire piece. The cut- 
outs in the Five Figure Board are an oval, a circle, 
a square, a hexagon and a cross. The cross is 
divided into three pieces. This is an original test 
and no previous work has been done with it. Our 
results on this test seem to show that it has an- 
swered admirably the purpose for which it was 
designed, namely, to serve as a more difficult form 
board of the Seguin type. 

(b) Method. The board is placed in front of 
the subject, as shown in Figure 2 (page 35). The 
square is at the subject's left and the oval at his 
right. The pieces are scattered around at the top of 
the board somewhat as in the figure. The two parts 
of the oval are at the farthest ends, next to which, 
proceeding inwards, are the two parts of the 
hexagon, then the two parts of the square, and in 
the center are the three parts of the cross and the 
two parts of the circle. 

34 



THE TESTS 

The experimenter says to the child: "Put this 
together as quickly as possible." 

(c) Record, A record of the time and number 
of errors is kept. An error is any attempt on the 
part of the child to put a piece into a wrong hole, 
or to put a piece in a wrong position in the right 
hole. If the child hesitates, holding a wrong piece 




Fig. 2. — ^The Five Figure Form Board. 

above a hole without touching the hole, an error 
is not counted. The time limit is 5 minutes. If 
not completed within this time limit D.N.C. is 
recorded. 



Test 4. The Two Figure Board 

(a) Description. The Two Figure Board was 
devised by Pintner to be a more difficult board 

35 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

than either the Seguin or the Five Figure Board. 
As a matter of fact, the results seem to indicate 
that it is sKghtly easier than the Five Figure Board, 
inasmuch as it is ordinarily done in a somewhat 
shorter time, and also as fewer children fail to 





1 


^^B 




ws^mesm 


1 "^/^H 


li 


1-:} 




^H~- 






^ 








. 


•; <J7^^^B 




A 


m 


k 


> 1 






,, . 


^9 




^ 


^ 


r 


^' m 






■ 
























- '^'U'.^^^H 


m^ 


mm 


_^ 




^^j^ 


^^ 


■ 


m 





Fig. 3. — The Two Figure Form Board. 

complete the test. It is a board 1.4 centimeter 
thick, measuring 38.3 x 25.4 centimeters, and hav- 
ing two cut-outs, a square and a cross. The cross 
consists of four pieces, two measuring 7.5 x 2.7 
centimeters and two 5.6 x 3.7 centimeters. The 
square is filled by another square measuring 7.5 x 
7.5 centimeters, and it fits into the larger square, 
with room for the remaining pieces only when put 

36 



THE TESTS 

in so that the sides of the smaller square form di- 
agonal lines from the middle points of the sides of 
the larger square. The remaining sections are filled 
by four small triangles measuring 7.2 x 5 x 5 centi- 
meters. This again is an original board on which 
no previous work has been reported. 

(b) Method. The board is placed before the 
child, as in Figure 3 (page 36), with the cross at 
the right-hand side, and the pieces scattered at the 
top. The arrangement of the pieces is as in the pic- 
ture, the square in the center with the little tri- 
angular pieces separating the small rectangular 
pieces. The examiner says to the child: "Put this 
together as quickly as you can." 

(c) Record. A record of the time and number 
of moves is kept. A move is any attempt, right 
or wrong, to place a block in a space. The few- 
est number of moves possible is nine. The time 
limit is 5 minutes. 

Test 5. The Casuist Form Board 

(a) Description. This test was devised by 
Knox,^" and we copied the test from his descrip- 
tion before Knox's tests were sold by the dealers, 
and it differs from the one sold by them. Our board 
measures 50 x 25.7 centimeters and is 1.5 centi- 

" Knox, H. A. : "A Scale, Based on the Work at Ellis 
Island, for Estimating Mental Defect," Journal of the Amer- 
ican Medical Association, Vol. Ixii (March 7, 1914), pp. 741- 

747. 

37 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

meter thick. There are three circles of varying 
sizes, having diameters of about 13, 11 and 7-7 centi- 
meters respectively, arid a fourth aperture in the 
shape of an elongated oval with the sides parallel 
part of the w^ay. The two larger circles are each 







Fig. 4. — The Casuist Form Board. 

cut up into three equal segments, while the smaller 
circle is cut into two equal segments. The elon- 
gated oval is cut into four pieces, two more or less 
circular end pieces, and two middle pieces. These 
are difficult to describe and can best be understood 
from Figure 4. 

Knox places this test among his twelve-year-old 
tests in his year scale of tests. To quote: "Do 

38 



THE TESTS 

Casuist Test in 5 minutes with sensible mistakes, 
if any." No description of "sensible mistakes" is 
given. This is obviously a very rough standardiza- 
tion. 

As far as the writers are aware no other mention 
of this test has been made in the literature of mental 
testing. We have not been able to find any other 
norms or attempted standardizations. As we shall 
see below, in the chapter on standardization, the 
median time for our twelve-year-olds to complete 
the test is only sixty-six seconds. None of the 
twelve-year-olds fail to do the test within 5 minutes. 
The median number of errors is four. We did not 
consider it practicable to make a distinction be- 
tween sensible and not sensible errors. Further 
inspection of our results for this test (see Tables 
8 and 9, and Graphs 13 and 14, pages 112-114) 
would seem to show that the Casuist Test per- 
formed within five minutes, with the allowance of 
a few sensible errors according to Knox's descrip- 
tion, is a very easy twelve-year-old test. We are 
inclined to believe that, used in this way, it might 
be passed by much younger children. Seventy-five 
per cent of our seven-year-olds complete the test 
within five minutes, although the average number 
of errors for the seventy-five per cent is thirty, 
which would probably not fulfill Knox's require- 
ment of "sensible mistakes." 

(b) Method. The board is placed before the 
child as in Figure 4, with the pieces scattered 
around in more or less definite order at the top of 

39 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

the board, as shown in the figure. The three seg- 
ments of the large circle are placed alternately with 
the three segments of the smaller circle in a row at 
the top of the board. In the row above these the 
remaining pieces are placed with the two halves of 
the small circle at each end and the four remaining 
pieces between, as shown in the figure. 

The examiner says to the child: "Put these 
pieces together as quickly as possible.'* 

(c) Record. A record of the time and number 
of errors is kept. The time limit is 5 minutes. 

Test 6. The Teiangle Test 

(a) Description. This is a test devised by 
Gwyn and described by Knox.^^ Our board is the 
standard one furnished by the dealers. It measures 
17 X 12.8 X 1 centimeters. The size of the rectangle 
at the top is 4.9 x 6 centimeters. The triangle is 
about 6 centimeters high, with a base measurement 
of about 9.5 centimeters. The rectangle is cut 
diagonally into two pieces, and the triangle is cut 
into two by a vertical section from the apex to 
the middle point of the base line. This results 
in four triangular pieces of exactly the same 
size. 

Knox does not pretend to have arrived at a 
standardization of this test. He merely classifies 
this among his "Make-up Tests for Adults," and 
his requirements are: "Put the four pieces into 

" Knox: Op. cit. 

40 



THE TESTS 

Gwyn's triangle three times in forty-five seconds." 
We have not given the test three times to our sub- 
jects, so that comparison with this requirement of 
Knox is impossible. No results of work done with 
this test have come to our notice, so that we have 
nothing with which we can compare our norms. 



kkiL A^Mmi. 



Fig. 5.— The Triangle Test (left), 
(right). 



The Diagonal Test 



(b) Method. The test is placed before the sub- 
ject as in Figure 5 (page 41), with the four tri- 
angles at the top, the right angle at the left and 
all the triangles pointing the same way. 

The experimenter says to the child: "Put this 
together as quickly as possible." 

(c) Record. A record is kept of the time and 
number of errors. The time limit is 5 minutes. 

41 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Test 7. The Diagonal Test 

(a) Description. The Diagonal Test was de- 
vised by Kempf and is described by Ivnox/^ who 
places this, along with the previous test, among his 
"Make-up Tests for Adults." His requirements 
are: "Put the pieces into Kempf 's diagonal in- 
side of three minutes." We know of no other men- 
tion of this test and therefore can make no compari- 
son with the results obtained by us. 

Our board is the one supplied by the dealers. 
The outside measurements of the frame are 
16.5 X 12.7 centimeters, the frame being one centi- 
meter thick. The inside measurements of the frame 
into which the pieces fit are 11x8 centimeters. The 
cut-outs can be seen on Figure 5 (page 41 ) . They 
may be described as two larger right-angle tri- 
angles, one small right-angle triangle, one rectangle 
4.3 X 5 centimeters and one large quadrilateral, 
from the top part of which the smaller triangle has 
been cut. There are two or three possible ways in 
which these pieces may be fitted into the frame, al- 
though the small triangle always goes with the 
quadrilateral, filling in one-half of the space, and 
the square and two triangles the other. The fact 
that there are different ways of fitting in the pieces, 
while making the test more difficult, introduces an 
element of chance. The different ways of fitting 
the pieces in do not seem to be all equally difficult ; 
therefore, if a child happens by chance to start with 

^^ Knox : Op. cit. 

42 



THE TESTS 

one of the easier ways, he has an advantage over 
the child who by chance makes a different, though 
equally rational, first move. This kind of test we 
have designated as belonging to the puzzle type of 
test. 

(b) Method. The pieces are scattered at the 
top of the test in the order shown in Figure 5. We 
doubt whether the arrangement of the pieces in pre- 
senting the test is of great significance, so long as 
no two pieces that belong together in the test are 
placed in juxtaposition. Our arrangement, how- 
ever, has generally been, beginning at the left-hand 
side facing the test: first, the small triangle, then 
one of the larger triangles, then the long rectangular 
piece, then the small rectangle, and lastly the sec- 
ond of the larger triangles. It is well for the ex- 
perimenter to get in the habit of placing the blocks 
in a certain order. It saves time and thought. 
After arranging the test, the instructions to the 
child are: "Put these together as quickly as pos- 
sible." 

(c) Record. A record of the time and number 
of errors is kept. The time limit is 5 minutes. An 
error is counted when a piece is placed in such a 
position that would make the filling in of the rest 
of the pieces impossible. Owing to the number of 
different ways in which the pieces may be arranged, 
errors are relatively infrequent among the first few 
moves. It is well for the experimenter to study all 
possibilities of this test before taking permanent 
records. 

43 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Test 8. The Healy Puzzle "A" 

(a) Descnption. This is a test first described 
by Healy and Fernald in 1911.^^ A picture of the 
test is given in Figure 6 (page 45). Our test is 
the one sold by the dealers. The outside measure- 
ments of the frame are 15.3 x 12.7 centimeters; the 
inside measurements of the frame 10.3 x 7-9 centi- 
meters. There are five rectangular pieces to be 
fitted into the frame. The measurements of our 
pieces are as follows : the largest 7.5 x 3 centimeters, 
the next largest 7.2 x 2.5 centimeters, the next 5.1 
X 3.4 centimeters, and the two small pieces, both 
the same size, 3.8 x 2.5 centimeters. 

Healy gives Freeman credit for making the first 
sketch of this test. Healy and Fernald, however, 
seem to have altered Freeman's original sketch and 
devised the test as we now know it. Their descrip- 
tion of the psychological character of the test is as 
follows: "This test brings out perception of rela-| 
tionship of form and also the individual's method of i 
mental procedure for the given task — particularly! 
his ability to profit by the experience of repeatedly 
trials, in contradistinction to the peculiar repetition! 
of impossibilities characteristic of the subnormal \ 
and feeble-minded groups." The method of scor- 
ing recommended by Healy and Fernald consists 
of noting (1) the time; (2) number of moves ; (3) 

"Healy, W., and Fernald, G. M.: "Tests for Practical 
Mental Classification," Psychological Monographs, Vol. xiii, 
No. 2, Whole No. 54 (1911), pp. 14-15. 

44 




Fig. 6.— The Manikin Test (top). Healy Puzzle "A' 
(bottom) . 

45 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

number of impossible moves; (4) repetition of such 
obvious impossibilities. A record of one case is 
given. 

No further standardization either of procedure 
or of results was given by the authors at that time. 
Since then, however, we have at least four studies 
dealing wholly or in part with this test, in addition 
to the norms given by Healy in a later work. 

Schmitt's ^* standardization, which appeared in 
1915, shows the results for 154 children. Her time 
limit is ten minutes. She gives the average time 
and number of errors of the cases distributed ac- 
cording to grade, and also a division of the results 
into planned, trial and error, and chance methods 
distributed according to grade and also according 
to age. More emphasis is placed upon the method 
of doing the test than upon the time. No explana- 
tion of what is meant by the three methods 
( planned, trial and error, and chance ) is given. Al- 
though the names of the methods are more or less 
self-explanatory, yet anyone who has had some ex- 
perience with this test will recognize at once that 
many performances would be very difficult to 
classify. Most performances, we venture to sug- 
gest, are a mixture of trial and error and planning. 
Many children start out with a good move by 
chance and complete the performance by trial and 
error or by planning. The determination by the 

^* Schmitt, C. : "Standardization of Tests for Defective 
Children," Psychological Monographs, Vol. xix^ No. 3, Whole 
No. 83 (1915), pp. 93-96. 

46 



THE TESTS 

examiner of the method of a specific performance 
is far too subjective a procedure to give any re- 
liable measurement. It may be that with practice 
and great care an examiner might reach a high 
degree of uniformity in his classification into 
the three methods named above; but even then, 
owing to the subjective nature of this kind of evalu- 
ation, his results would be absolutely worthless for 
purposes of comparison with the results of other 
workers. Furthermore, we may say that, on the 
whole, the planned method will be done more 
quickly than the trial and error method and will be 
done in fewer moves ; and further, that, with some 
exceptions, the chance method will take the longest 
time and require the greatest number of moves. 
This is borne out by Schmitt's results, for the aver- 
age time of the kindergarten children is 3 minutes 
and 10 seconds, the longest time period for any one 
of the groups, and it is among this group that the 
largest percentage of cases belonging to the chance 
method occurs. It seems best, therefore, to take 
the time and the number of moves as measures of 
the performance. These are perfectly objective 
and measurable values. In so doing we may occa- 
sionally overestimate a performance that is due to 
chance, and such cases undoubtedly occur. To that 
extent the test is of the puzzle variety, and to that 
extent it is open to criticism. 

Healy ^^ in a later statement of norms says that: 

^^Healy, W.: The Individual Delinquent, Little, Brown 
and Co. (1915), p. 107. 

47 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

"No normal person over 8 or 9 years should fail 
to do it in 5 minutes," but we find this doubtful in 
view of the fact that 11 out of 117 of our ten-year- 
olds, 4 out of 105 eleven-year-olds, 4 out of 88 
twelve-year-olds and 2 out of 44 fourteen-year-olds 
failed. Failure at these ages is certainly very poor. 
All of these cases lie below the 10 percentile for 
their age and might give rise to a suspicion of men- 
tal defect, but this would have to be corroborated 
by the use of many other tests. Healy, like 
Schmitt, also lays emphasis upon the method, but 
leaves evaluation of the performance according to 
method entirely a subj ective matter. 

Hall's ^^ work with this test gives the results with 
180 cases, ranging from age seven to age twelve. 
She shows for each age the per cent successful, the 
average time and the average number of moves. A 
comparison of these average times with our medians 
has little value, since Hall's average time at each 
age is merely for those completing the test success- 
fully. Our medians, of course, take into account 
those who failed to complete the test within the 
5-minute time limit. We give on page 49 our me- 
dians and Hall's average time for ages seven to 
twelve inclusive. 

The surprising thing about this comparison is 
that our medians are generally lower than Hall's 
averages, notwithstanding the fact that our medians 

^^ Hall, G. : "Eleven Mental Tests Standardized," Eugenics 
and Social Welfare Bulletin No. V, State Board of Charities, 
New York (1915), pp. 26-32. 

48 





THE TESTS 




ige 


Hall's Average 


Our Median. 


7 


126.8 


131 


8 


133.5 


117 


9 


95.9 


86 


10 


75.5 


70 


11 


48.5 


54 


12 


41.8 


46 



are influenced by the number of failures at each 
age. It may be that Hall's children were, on the 
whole, somewhat below the normal child, if our 
cases can be said to be sufficiently numerous to ap- 
proach the normal. Or it may be that our chil- 
dren did somewhat better because of previous prac- 
tice with the other tests of the same nature that 
preceded this test in our series. "We doubt whether 
this would make a great difference. 

The per cent successful in completing the test 
at each age for our cases and for Hall's cases is as 
follows : 



Age 


Hall's Cases 


Ours 


7 


50.0 


58.6 


8 


53.3 


69.4 


9 


96.6 


83.6 


10 


90.0 


90.8 


11 


90.0 


96.3 


12 


93.3 


95.5 



It will be noted that at all ages, with the excep- 
tion of age nine, our percentages are higher than 

49 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

those of Hall, showing a somewhat better perform- 
ance of our cases, which is what would be expected 
from the comparison of the time. Hall's nine- 
year-olds, as noted in other tests, seem to be 
better than average nine-year-olds, because they 
frequently make better records than her ten-year- 
olds. 

Another study of this test was made by Bruck- 
ner and King.^^ They give the results for 90 eight- 
year-olds and for 59 ten-year-olds. The authors 
lay stress upon the value of the test as a learning 
test and give three trials. It is the first trial only 
that interests us here. The median time for eight- 
and ten-year-olds offers an opportunity for com- 
parison with our medians. Nothing is said about 
failures and none are recorded in the tables. The 
median for eight-year-olds is 140 seconds, while 
ours is 117; the median for ten-year-olds is 69 sec- 
onds, while ours is 70 seconds. The eight-year-old 
median differs considerably from ours, and we are 
unable to explain this difference. Bruckner and 
King's eight-year-old median is worse than our 
seven-year-old median, though better than our six- 
year-old. The only suggestion we have to offer as 
an explanation or partial explanation of this dif- 
ference is what we have said above as to the possi- 
bility of practice with similar material in tests which 
preceded this test in our series. But if this is really 

^^ Bruckner, L., and King, I.: "A Study of the Fernald 
Form Board," Psychological Clinic, Vol. ix, No. 9 (1916), 
pp. 249-257. 

50 



THE TESTS 

an influential factor, then it ought to be shown in 
the ten-year-old results, and this is not the case. 

Bronner ^^ reports some results with this test, ap- 
pearing as a sort of criticism of the work referred 
to above, in which she questions the value of this test 
as an age test, although her reasons for this are not 
clear. She notes the fact that Terman has placed 
it in his scale. In regard to the test she says : "We 
believe that it is better adapted to throw light upon 
ability along certain lines regardless of age." No 
indication is given as to what kind of ability is 
meant. Even if this is so, we can at the same time 
standardize this ability for each age. It is her point 
of view in regard to standardization, however, to 
which we would take most objection. She says: 
"When, however, the standardization of a test is 
based upon data gathered in schools the mentality 
of the children cannot be determined and there 
might conceivably be included feeble-minded and 
greatly retarded as well as the normal. A few such 
extreme cases would alter averages considerably." ^^ 
It is true that they would alter averages consider- 
ably and that is why it is better to use the median 
as the standard. But, even so, the inclusion of these 
cases in a large enough group is greatly to be 
desu'ed if a complete standardization is to be at- 
tained. Why is there such a horror of including a 

^^ Bronner, A. F. : " 'Construction Test A' of the Healy- 
Fernald Series/' Psychological Clinic, Vol. x, No. 2 (1916), 
pp. 40-44. 

^^ Bronner: Op. cit., p. 43. 

51 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

feeble-minded case now and then, and no horror of 
including the abnormally bright child? The latter 
will play havoc with averages and medians (if 
it is regarded as havoc) to just the same extent as 
will the feeble-minded. 

Then again, why should we know the mentality 
of the children we are testing? What we want to 
arrive at is the ability of children of a specific age 
on a certain test, and we ought not to be influ- 
enced by other estimates of their ability. Our sole 
endeavor must be to get a fair sampling of cases 
at each age. If we standardize according to men- 
tal age arrived at by any scale, we are moving 
in a circle and presupposing that our determi- 
nation of mentality is accurate and final. This 
question we have discussed more fully in Chap- 
ter VIII. 

Bronner's medians are given for boys and girls 
separately and her description of the cases as nor- 
mal children "of good innate ability" would lead 
one to suppose that they are above normal for any 
age as a whole. Her age groups range from eleven 
to seventeen inclusive. The comparison of the 
medians with ours for ages eleven to fourteen is 
as follows: 

Bronner Ours 



Age 


Boys 


Girls 




11 


45 


61 


54 


12 


41 


38 


46 


13 


54 


47 


38 


14 


30 


24 


55 



52 



THE TESTS 

Our fourteen-year-old median is based upon only 
44 cases and we do not feel that it is very reliable, 
since the sampling of fourteen-year-olds is scarcely 
a fair sampling of fourteen-year-olds in general. 

(b) Method. The test is placed before the child, 
as in Figure 6 (page 45), the three large pieces 
being separated from each other by the two small 
pieces of equal size. The examiner says to the 
child: "Put this together as quickly as you can." 

(c) Record. A record of the time and the num- 
ber of moves is kept. The time limit is 5 minutes. 

Test 9. The Manikin Test 

(a) Description. This test was devised by Pint- 
ner and is described here for the first time. It was 
designed as a test for young children. It demands 
the same kind of ability as the Feature Profile 
Test. The scattered fragments suggest some kind 
of a complete whole and the child has to synthesize 
these scattered impressions and plan to reach a 
definite end. 

The test represents the conventional figure of a 
man; such as is often drawn by children, i.e., a body, 
two arms, two legs and a head. The pieces are 
shown in Figure 6 (page 45). The figure is cut 
out of wood which is about 7 millimeters thick. 
The sizes of the pieces are: body, 11.6 x 6.7 centi- 
meters at the widest points; legs about 13.2 centi- 
meters long; arms about 10.4 centimeters long; 
head about 4.2 centimeters long. The wood is 

53 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

varnished on one side and a few lines are painted 
to represent eyes, nose, mouth, cuffs, shoes, coat, 
collar and buttons. 

The places where the arms and legs fit into the 
body are not the same shape either for both arms 
or for both legs, one being rectangular and the 
other circular in each case. This device was adopted 
to add to the difficulty of an exact performance. 
It has proved to be an excellent^test, for it 
permits of a definitely objective m^i^^^ scor- 
ing. 

No results on this test have been published up to 
the present time. 

(b) Method. The test is placed before the child' 
as in Figure 6. It is to be noted that the leg with 
the rectangular end is at the opposite side of the 
body from the place where it fits. Similarly with 
the other leg and the two arms. In other words, 
to make a complete performance the child has to 
bring the leg and arm at the right over to the left 
side, and the leg and arm at the left over to the 
right side. 

The experimenter says to the child: "Put this 
together as quickly as you can." Do not say any- 
thing about its being a man. 

(c) Record. Although the time of performance 
was taken for this test, we have not seen fit to 
make it a measure of ability for the test. Instead, 
we have devised a method of scoring for the end 
result attained by the child. This system of scor- 
ing is as follows: 

54 



THE TESTS 

A complete performance, absolutely accurate — 
5 points. 

One or both arms up or out, i.e., not exactly fit- 
ting in the joints — 4 points. 

One reversal, i.e., right arm for left arm and vice 
versa, or right leg for left leg — 3 points. 

Two reversals, i.e., both arms and both legs re- 
versed — 2 points. 

Legs orarms interchanged or arms at sides, or 
am^Kfk result which looks like a man — 
l^^mt 

Failure to see that it is a man — points. 



The experimenter either makes a note of the 
position or merely notes the score, if he is familiar 
enough with the method of scoring. 

The time limit is five minutes. 



Test 10. The Feature Profile Test 

(a) Description. This test was devised by Knox 
and Kempf and has been described by Knox."^ 
The author says: "It is our highest and most diffi- 
cult performance test and yet it is eminently fair, 
because everyone has seen a human head; the sub- 
jects are told 'This is a head.' " Our instructions to 
the subject are somewhat different, as will be seen 

^° Knox, H. A. : "A Scale, Based on the Work at Ellis 
Island, for Estimating Mental Defect," Journal of the Ameri- 
can Medical Association, Vol. Ixii (March 7, 1914), pp. 741- 

747. 

55 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

below. Our subjects are not told that it is a head. 

Our test was a copy from Knox's description. 
It is made of wood about 1 centimeter thick, and 
measures about 21 x 17 centimeters at its greatest 
measurements. Like the Manikin Test described 
above, it demands that synthetic ability of seeing 
the parts of a whole and of putting these together, 
a kind of ability which seems to be one of the essen- 
tial factors in general intelligence. 

Knox places this test among the group of tests 
headed "At from Thirteen Years Onward," and 
his time limit is 10 minutes. Our results show 
that with a time limit of only 5 minutes, 16 out of 
68, or 24 per cent, of the thirteen-year-olds fail. 
That means that 76 per cent of the thirteen-year- 
olds pass the test and, therefore, it may be called 
a thirteen-year-old test, with a time limit of 5 min- 
utes. A time limit of 10 minutes would make the 
test a very easy thirteen-year-old test. 

Some results of this test with feeble-minded chil- 
dren have already been published by us.^^ 

(b) Method. The test is placed before the sub- 
ject as in Figure 7 (page 57). The three pieces 
forming the face or profile are separated from each 
other by the four pieces forming the ear. These 
are placed at the top of the head, which is placed 
in correct position in front of the subject. The 
experimenter says: "Put this together as quickly 

^^ Pintner, R., and Paterson, D. G. : "The Factor of Ex- 
perience in Intelligence Testing," Psychological Clinic, Vol. 
ix, No. 2 (1915), pp. 44-50. 

5Q 



THE TESTS 

as you can." If the subject changes the position 
of the head during the manipulation of the pieces, 
the examiner is not permitted to place it in its 
correct position again, or to help the subject in any 




Fig. 7.— The Feature Profile Test. 

57 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

way. The subject is not told what the test 
represents. 

(c) Record. A record of the time alone is kept. 
The time limit is 5 minutes. 



Test 11. The Ship Test 

(a) Description. This test was devised by 
Gliick and mentioned by Knox.^^ He places this 
test among the group headed "At from Thirteen 
Years Onward." His time limit again is ten min- 
utes. No results are given for this test by Knox. 
Our results show about 60 per cent of the thirteen- 
year-olds making a perfect performance within a 
time limit of 5 minutes. It is doubtful whether a 
longer time limit would lead to better results. If 
such is not the case, then Knox's standard would 
appear to be rather difficult for thirteen-year-olds. 
A perfect performance is not made by 75 per cent 
of the cases in any of our age groups. 

Our test is the one supplied by the dealers. It 
consists of a frame 1 centimeter thick, of which 
the outside measurements are 25 x 16.2 centimeters 
and the inside 21.4 x 12.5 centimeters. Into this 
frame there can be fitted 10 pieces, each measuring 
21 x 6.2 centimeters, which when properly fitted 
together form a ship. 

This test differs from the Mare and Foal, the 
Manikin or the Feature Profile, inasmuch as all the 
pieces are of the same size and shape. The size 

^^ Knox : Op. cit. 

58 



THE TESTS 

and shape of the pieces give no help in determin- 
ing the correct position. The subject must be 
guided solely by the picture he is trying to make. 

The ultimate picture constructed by the subject 
seems to the writers to be the most significant 
feature of the test. Obviously this will vary all 
the way from a correct picture to an impossible 
one. To grade the various possible combinations 
of the test, the following scheme was adopted: A 
score of 20 is allowed for a perfect performance, 
i.e., 2 points for each piece in its correct position. 
A score of one is allowed for each of the lower or 
upper pieces, if placed in the lower or upper portion 
of the frame, i.e., the "water" pieces at the bottom 
and the "sky" pieces at the top. If a child puts the 
five "water" pieces at the bottom and the five "sky" 
pieces at the top, he receives a score of 10. In 
addition to this, a score of one is given to any piece 
that is in correct position in relation to any other 
piece, i.e., any two or more adjoining pieces cor- 
rect each receive a score of one. The maximum 
score is 20, i.e., ten for "sky" and "water" pieces, 
and 10 for each piece being next to its correct ad- 
joining piece. 

(b) Method. The test is placed before the sub- 
ject as in Figure 8 (page 60). The ten pieces 
are always placed in the same position, in order 
to eliminate any possible advantage that might 
accrue to some children owing to a helpful arrange- 
ment that might now and then result from a chance 
arrangement of the pieces. To aid the examiner 

59 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

in quickly arranging the pieces, they are num- 
bered consecutively on the backs and upper edges 




Fig. 8.— The Ship Test. 

of the pieces, i.e., so that he can see the numbers 
when sitting opposite the subject. The numbers 

60 



THE TESTS 

begin with the block at the upper left hand corner 
on the picture and continue consecutively along to 
the right hand block, and similarly with the second 
row. The examiner says to the child: "Put this 
together as quickly as you can." 

(c) Record. A record of the time and score was 
kept, but we have only used the score in the evalua- 
tion of the test. There is no definite time limit. 
The child is urged to continue as long as he shows 
any signs of completing the test. As soon as he 
indicates in any way that he has finished, the test 
is taken away and scored. The examiner must 
not show in any way his disapproval of any per- 
formance, but rather his approval. The child must 
not be given an opportunity to make any changes, 
if the examiner has suggested by his attitude that 
the performance is incorrect. During the actual 
performance of the test the child may, of course, 
make as many changes as he wishes. 

Test 12. The Picture Completion Test 

(a) Description. A full description of the test 
with a critical survey of work already done with 
the test, together with norms for each age, is given 
by Pintner and Anderson ^^ and need not be re- 
peated here. 

(b) Method. The test is placed before the child 

^^ Pintner, R., and Anderson, M. M. : "The Picture Com- 
pletion Test," Educational Psychology Monographs; Warwick 
and York, Baltimore. 

61 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 




Fig. 9. — The Picture Completion Test. 

as in Figure 9 above. For the method of proce- 
dure see Pintner and Anderson's monograph, re- 
ferred to on page 61 

(c) Becord. The method of scoring devised by 
Pintner and Anderson has been followed.^* They 
2* Pintner^ R., and Anderson, M. M. : Op. cit, 

62 



THE TESTS 

do not prescribe any time limit, but suggest that 
a time limit of 10 minutes be adhered to, for prac- 
tical reasons, when a subject has a whole series 
of tests to perform. Very few children will require 
more than 5 or 6 minutes. 

Test 13. The Substitution Test 

(a) Description. This test was reported by 
Woodworth and Wells.^^ They give results for 
eleven adults, showing the average times for the 
first half, the second half and the whole blank. The 
average time for the first half for this group is 79.6 
seconds, which is, as would be expected, lower 
than the average time for any of our groups of chil- 
dren. 

A picture of the test is shown in Figure 10 
(page 64). 

We have used only the upper half of the test 
sheet, because of the practical necessity for limiting 
the length of time taken with each test in a series 
of tests. 

(b) Method. The sheet is placed before the 
child and his attention is called to the blank key 
at the top. In Figure 10 the key has been filled 
in. The examiner says: "I will put a number in 
each one of these little figures and I want you to 
copy the same number in the same figure. What 

^^ Woodworth, R. S., and Wells, F. L. : "Association Tests," 
Psychological Monographs, Vol. xiii, No. 5, Whole No. 57 
(1911), pp. 53-55. 

63 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

number will you put in this figui'e?" (pointing 
to one of the figures on the test blank). If the 
child answers, "The same as in that figure," and 
indicates the right one in the key, the examiner 
then repeats the question with other figures. If 
not, the examiner tells the child and continues until 
he is reasonably sure that the child understands. 

^ a c^ A 



nOi^AOO^ADO 

i^on^n<>AO^i^ 

ODAOOn^DOA 
n-M-OAi^AOi^VAp 

Fig. lO.^The Substitution Test. 

The examiner then fills in the key without allow- 
ing the child to see what numbers he puts in the 
key, and says : "Now fill these numbers in the right 
figures beginning here and working along each one 
of the lines." 

In giving this test to children who do not un- 
derstand English or to deaf children, a short prac- 
tice sheet with a key in which letters are inserted 
instead of figures is used. By pointing and by 

64 



THE TESTS 

showing the child what to fill in, we believe we 
attain the same results by way of explanation as 
in the case of oral instructions."*^ 

(c) Record. A record of the time is taken. The 
blank is then corrected and the number of errors 
recorded. The score for the performance is arrived 
at by adding to the time an additional penalty for 
each error. This penalty is determined by the time 
taken for the whole test; each error is counted 1/50 
of the total time for the test. The theory is that, 
if the child were given an opportunity to cor- 
rect his errors, the actual time for correcting (not 
finding) them would be about the time taken to 
fill in one figure. If we divide the total time by 
50 (i.e., the number of figures to be filled in), we 
arrive at the average time for filling in one figure. 
This is then multiplied by the number of errors and 
the resulting value is added to the total time. The 
penalty for an error varies with the time taken for 
the test. A high score is poor and a low score 
is good. 



Test 14. The Adaptation Board 

(a) Description. This test was devised by God- 
dard and was described by him,^^ and norms for 

^^ Pintner, R., and Paterson, D. G. : The Psychology of 
the Deaf. To appear shortly. 

-'' Goddard, H. H. : "The Adaptation Board," Proceedings 
of the Washington Meeting of the Psychological Associations, 
Psychological Bulletin^ Vol. ix (1912), p. 79- 

65 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

certain moves of the test for normal and feeble- 
minded children have been published.^^ Goddard's 
Board measures 22 x 28 centimeters, with holes 
measuring in diameter 6.3 and 6.5 centimeters. 
Our board measures 22 x 25 centimeters and is 0.5 
centimeter thick and has four holes in it, three of 
them being 6.8 centimeters in diameter and the 
fourth 7 centimeters in diameter. A wooden block 
with a handle fits the large hole exactly. 

(b) Method. The examiner takes the board in 
his left hand and, with the right hand holding the 
block, shows the child that it will fit into the larger 
hole but not into any of the other holes. The board 
is so held that the large hole is at the examiner's 
upper right hand corner. The child is then given 
the block and the examiner says: "Put it into the 
right hole." If the child fails, he is shown how to 
do it. When this has been done, the examiner says : 
"Watch closely." The board is now turned over in 
such a way that the large hole at the upper right 
hand corner approaches the child in turning and 
rests at the examiner's upper left hand corner. As 
before, the child is told to put the block in the right 
place. Again, if the child fails, he is shown where 
the right hole now is. The examiner then turns 
the board over towards the child so that the large 
hole occupies the position at the examiner's lower 
left hand corner. The child reacts as before. The 

^^ Goddard, H. H.: "The Adaptation Board as a Measure 
olf Intelligence," Training School Bulletin, Vol. xi, 10 (1915), 
3. 182-188. 

66 



THE TESTS 

next move is to turn the board so that the large 
hole occupies the lower right hand corner. For the 
last move, the examiner holds the board at the top 
right hand corner with the right hand and the bot- 
tom left hand corner with the left, and turns 
the board toward the child diagonally so that the 
large hole rests finally at the upper left hand 
corner. 

Each move of the board takes about % second. 
It is a steady movement and not a hurried 
procedure. 

(c) Record. The number of moves correctly 
made is recorded. 

Test 15. The Cube Test 

(a) Description. This test was devised by 
Knox ^'^ and first described by him. As used by 
him there were five different movements or lines, 
which were placed at various ages in his scale. 

Pintner's ^^ modification and expansion of the 
Cube Test is the one used here. The lines devised 
by Pintner are as follows : 

A 1234 C 1432 G 13124 

X 12343 D 1423 H 143124 

Y 12342 E 13243 I 132413 

B 1324 F 14324 J 142341 

29 Knox : Op. cit. 

^° Pintner^ R.: "The Standardization of Knox's Cube Test," 
Psychological Review, Vol. xxii, No. 5 (1915), pp. 377-401. 

67 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Many of the original data collected by Pintner, 
together with additions, have been used in arriving 
at the norms established by us. 

The material required is five blocks of the same 
color and size. We have, in general, made use of 
the Binet black cubes. Since the work on this test 
was started, Knox has devised different material, 
namely, four cubes of different colors mounted on 
a baseboard, and this is the material supplied by the 
dealers under the name of Knox Cube Test. Need- 
less to say, this difference in material may lead to a 
radical difference in results and should not be used 
in this scale of performance tests, if our norms are 
to be used. 

( b ) Method. The four cubes are placed on the 
table in front of the subject at a distance of about 
two inches apart. "The examiner holds the fifth 
cube in his hand. He says to the subject: 'Watch 
carefully, and then do as I do.' He then taps the 
blocks with the fifth cube in a certain definite order 
and at a certain definite rate (about one tap per 
second), always beginning with the cube at the 
child's left or the examiner's right, if he is facing 
the child. He then lays the fifth cube down in 
front of the child equidistant between the third and 
fourth cube, but nearer to the child, and says: 'Do 
that.' ... If we number the blocks the different 
combinations will be readily understood, and the 
following diagram should make absolutely clear 
their position with regard to the subject and the 
examiner (if he is facing the subject) ." 

68 



THE TESTS 

SUBJECT 



EXAMINER 



31 



(c) Record. A record of the number of lines 
passed or failed is kept. The examiner continues 
as far as possible with the child, always continuing 
with at least three lines after the child fails, and 
in many cases with more than three lines if there 
seems to be any possible chance of the child's suc- 
ceeding in additional lines. 

^^Pintner, R.: Op. cit., pp. 377-378. 



CHAPTER III 

STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

In the history of mental tests the problem of 
standardization is one that is being emphasized 
more and more. The specific manner in which this 
problem of standardization has developed is due 
to the growth of scales of intelligence. It was 
owing to the fact that the scales were not proving 
themselves as accurate measures as critical workers 
demanded, that the question of standardization 
came to the front. It was the connection with 
scales of intelligence that made tlie question of 
standardization center around the correct placing 
of tests at specific ages, since the first scales of in- 
telligence were age scales. But the problem of 
standardization has now advanced far beyond this 
specific question of the right placing of a test at 
a certain age for the use of this test in an age 
scale. 

In general the question of standardization divides 
itself into two parts: (1) the standardization of 
procedure, and ( 2 ) the standardization of response, 
or the accumulation of sufficient results so that a 
specific response may be interpreted in the light of 
previous results, with a tolerable degree of cer- 

70 



STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

tainty that the results are sufficiently numerous to 
warrant a generalization for the age or group 
of individuals in question. 

The first part, i.e., the standardization of pro- 
cedure, is so obvious as to make extended discus- 
sion unnecessary. Our standard method of pro- 
cedure in regard to all of the tests discussed in 
the present volume has been laid down in Chap- 
ter II. Needless to say, our results must be in- 
terpreted in the light of that method of procedure, 
and results obtained by workers who do not follow 
strictly the procedure there laid down cannot be 
directly comparable with ours. This principle has 
been emphasized again and again by the most 
careful writers on mental tests,^ and further insist- 
ence on it seems to verge upon pedantry. It ought 
by this time to be taken for granted in -any work 
with mental tests in which the results of different 
workers are compared. A further point concern- 
ing this same aspect of standardization is the impor- 
tance of using exactly the same test material. This 
is of particular importance with performance tests 
such as those described here. We have noted in 
Chapter I, in the enumeration of the tests used, 
the cases in which our test material differs from 
that commonly supplied by the dealers. Ordinarily 
we have chosen to work with the material which 

^ Cf. Woodworth, R. S., and Wells, L. F. : "Association 
Tests," Psychological Monographs, Vol. xiii, No. 5, Whole 
No. 57 (1911). This work deals largely with the question of 
arriving at the best methods for the presentation of the tests 
therein described. 

71 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

can be readily obtained, but in some cases (as noted 
above) work had been begun with tests made by 
ourselves before they were obtainable through the 
usual channels, and later comparison of the mate- 
rials showed no advantage over that made by us. 

The other division of the problem of standardi- 
zation deals with the establishment of norms. Here 
the question of supreme importance relates to the 
number of cases necessary before we can be cer- 
tain of reliable norms. No dogmatic answer is pos- 
sible to this question, and indeed few writers have 
discussed it. In some quarters, however, decided 
faith is placed in large numbers. Without any real 
reason large numbers and large numbers alone are 
deemed necessary for the group used in standardiz- 
ing. The general argument runs somewhat as 
follows : If I wish to find out what a normal eight- 
year-old performance on a test is, I will get a fair 
norm if I test 300 eight-year-olds, I will get a 
better norm if I test 600 cases, and a still more 
reliable norm if I test 1,000 or 2,000 cases. The 
argument is seldom stated so bluntly, but the evi- 
dent delight of some workers in mere numbers really 
amounts to the same thing.^ As a matter of fact, 
the accumulation of an additional thousand cases 
to the first thousand, or an additional hundred to 
the first hundred, may be simply a waste of time. 
The question resolves itself into a consideration of 
the group of individuals tested, the variation of the 

^ Young, H. H. : "The Witmer Form Board," Psychological 
Clinic, Vol. X, No. 4 (1916), pp. 93-111. 

72 



STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

norm with the addition of each group of results and 
the type of standardization required. 

Diffei'ences in Social Status. The group of in- 
dividuals tested will give results typical of that 
group and of no other group. Whether it is per- 
missible to draw inferences from one group of indi- 
viduals tested in regard to a different group of 
individuals who have not been tested is very de- 
batable. If children in the best schools are selected, 
we shall obtain norms for children of good social 
status only, and we do not seem warranted in draw- 
ing conclusions as to what children of medium or 
poor social standing will be able to do from the 
norms obtained in such a way. That distinct dif- 
ferences in the performance of mental tests exist 
among children of different social status has been 
pointed out by a few workers.^ Our norms may be 
perfectly reliable, but their reliability will extend 
only to the specific group tested. If we are seeking 
norms for the general population at large, a fair 
sampling of the general population at large would 
be the ideal method. Theoretically we ought to 
include individuals of all classes and of all degrees 

^ Yerkes, R. M., Bridges, J. W., and Hardwick, R. S.: A 
Point Scale for Measuring Mental Ability, Warwick and York 
(1915). 

Bridges, J. W., and Coler, L. : "The Relation of Intelli- 
gence to Social Status," Psychological Revieiv, Vol. xxiv. No. 
1 (1917), pp. 1-31. 

Strong, A. C: "Three Hundred and Fifty White and 
Colored Children Measured by the Binet-Simon Measuring 
Scale of Intelligence: A Comparative Study," Pedagogical 
Seminary, Volume xx (1913), pp. 485-515. 

73 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

of intellect. Our curve of distribution of the per- 
formances will only be a true curve if we include 
a sampling of all grades of intelligence from the 
very lowest to the very highest, but the sampling 
must include all the different grades in the same 
proportion as they exist in the community at large, 
i.e., assuming these proportions to be known. Such 
random selection of cases seems to be the only 
method of securing a true normal curve, and to 
call this method one of standardizing "on the basis 
of normal and abnormal material" * is not only to 
misstate the case, but to ignore the sound principle 
upon which it is based. If the lowest grades of 
intelligence are called abnormal and are to be omit- 
ted, we must be consistent and call the highest 
grades abnormal and omit them likewise,, or else 
our norm will be shifted slightly too high. In es- 
tablishing a norm for height we would not permit 
the rejection of those individuals who happen to be 
taller than some preconceived notion of height by 
which we had decided that all people above a cer- 
tain height should be called abnormal or pathologi- 
cal cases. 

This sampling made up of the right proportion 
of cases of all kinds is frankly ideal and up to the 
present has not been attainable in the standardi- 
zation of mental tests. Various methods have of • 
necessity been employed to arrive at reliable norms 

* Wallin, J. E. W.: "Mentality Tests: A Symposium," 
Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. vii, No. 6 (1916), 
p. 356. 

74 



STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

for the population at large. Simpson ^ took two 
groups of individuals, a good and a poor group, and 
argued that the median performance of these 
groups would give a fair estimate of the ability of 
the normal or average in the population at large. 
The careful selection of individuals made by Simp- 
son would seem to lend color to this claim. Simi- 
larly, Young ^ took two schools, one in a better 
class and one in a poor environment, upon which to 
standardize the Witmer Form Board. The method 
employed in these two instances ought, theoreti- 
cally, to result in fairly reliable norms. 

In the present work another method has been 
adopted, namely, the use of schools attended by 
children of the middle classes. One school might 
be said to represent the lower middle class or work- 
ing population, and the other the upper middle 
class, made up of smaller tradesmen and some of 
the professional classes. The combination of these 
two groups of children, it was felt, would be very 
representative of the middle class of the popula- 
tion at large and would include a fair sampling 
of all grades of intelligence. It was felt that the 
medians at any rate would be very reliable, al- 
though the upper and lower end of the distribution 
might be somewhat lacking. It is doubtful, how- 
ever, whether the distribution at the upper or lower 

^Simpson, B. R.: "Correlations of Mental Abilities," 
Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to Edu- 
cation, No. 53 (1912), p. 122. 

^ Young, H. H. : Op. cit. 

75 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

end would have been markedly affected by the in- 
clusion of a school in the best neighborhood and a 
school in the worst neighborhood of the city. Until 
the collection of data can be extended over whole 
cities, some such method similar to these mentioned 
will have to be used. 

The Stability of the Norm. The question as to 
the number of cases adequate for a reliable norm for 
any age group can be determined only by a study 
of the fluctuation of the norm from time to time. 
Having decided upon the type of individual to be 
tested, an indication of the adequacy of the number 
is obtained when the addition of more cases fails 
to alter the norm materially. The ideal method 
would be to work out the values we require for 
each group tested at stated intervals throughout the 
work, watching what change occurs with the addi- 
tion of each new set of results. Such a method was 
suggested and adopted by one of us ^ in a previous 
study. It seems at the present time to be the only 
way of answering this question. In the tentative 
standardization of the tests for the performance 
scale here described this method was only partially 
employed with a few tests because the number of 
tests used was so great as to preclude the collec- 
tion of a great many cases at each age. It was felt 
that at no age have we arrived at the stage of hav- 
ing more than enough cases to establish a reliable 
norm, although at many ages we feel that there 

'^ Pintner, R.: "The Standardization of Knox's Cube Test," 
Psychological Review, Vol. xxii, No. 5 (1915), p. 382 et seq. 

76 



STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

are sufficient numbers to give fairly reliable norms. 
With four of the tests, however, a partial em- 
ployment of the method advised by Pintner was 
used. The use of the method is partial, since the 
norms were only computed twice and not at stated 
intervals. These results are best shown by means 



D.N.C. 



20 



Age 5 



























I 






















\ 


\ 




















\ 


\ 




















\ 


\ 




















\ 


\ 




















\ 


\ 




















\ 




\ 


















\ 




\ 


















\ 




\ 


















' 






\ 




















N 


\ 




















S 


\ 














































^"■^ 


'-^=~. 






^ 1 
















~^ 


"'' 


^ 


^^=^=^ — 

























Graph 1. — Healy Puzzle "A." Time. Broken line=1915, 
341 cases. Solid line=:19l6, 1^000 cases. 

of graphs. In the graphs the broken line repre- 
sents the first group of cases and the solid line the 
final standardization arrived at by the addition of 
a great many more cases. 

Graph 1 shows the results for Healy Puzzle "A" 
(Time) . The broken line shows the first 341 cases, 
and the solid line the total of 1,000 cases, which of 
course includes the first 341 cases. The greatest 
shift of the median takes place at ages 7, 8 and 9, 

77 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

otherwise the curves remain relatively the same. 
The shift at the ages mentioned leads to a better 
median performance at those ages. 

Graph 2 shows the results for the Casuist Form 
Board (Time) . The two curves are practically the 
same. The addition of 477 cases to the first group 

Time 

O.N.C, 

300 
280 
260 
240 
220 
200 
180 
160 
140 
120 
100 

80 

60 

40 

20 


Age 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

Graph 2. — The Casuist Form Board. Time. Broken line: 
1915, 428 cases. Solid line— 1916, 905 cases. 



\ I 



of 428 has not altered the shape of the original 
curve. This means that our additional 477 cases 
were practically useless, as far as the medians are 
concerned. What influence they may have had 
upon a percentile distribution we cannot tell. 
However, the results on this test show that mere 
increase in numbers in and for itself is no crite- 
rion of added reliability of the norms. 

Graph 3 shows the results for the Casuist Form 

78 



STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 



Errors 






















D.N.C. 






















\ 


\ 
\ 


















30 
25 
20 


\ 


\ 




















\ \ 
\\ 
\\ 




















\\ 






































15 
10 




\\ 






















\ 




















^v. 
























^^^ 


^=^ 












5 














"■"■ — -., 


"....^^ 




— — -^*' 






^"^"~- 


'"^ 



Age 5 



10 11 12 13 14 15 



Graph 3. — The Casuist Form Board. Errors. Broken line: 
1915, 428 cases. Solid liner=19l6, 905 cases. 



D.N.C. 



160 



40 

20 


Age 4 



























\x 






















V 

\\ 












































\\ 
























V 






















\ 
\ 






















\ \ 






















\ \ 

\ \ 






















\\ 
























\ 

\ 


/'' 


\ 




















.' 


\ 

\ 






















\ 






















"--A 


== 


^ 




^, 




















"'''^^ 


■^^-'■'^ 


~~ — 















































10 11 12 13 14 15 



Graph 4. — The Five Figure Form Board. Time. Broken 
line=1915, 295 cases. Solid line=19l6, 963 cases. 



79 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 



Board (Errors). The curves show practically the 
same facts as those in the preceding graph. 

Graph 4 gives the results for the Five Figure 
Board (Time). With the exception of age nine, 
the medians show little change with the addition 
of 668 cases to the first 295 cases. This graph, 

Time 

D.N.C. 



120 
100 

























\ 


\ 




















\ 


\ 




















\ 


\ 




















\ 




\ 

\ 


















\ 




\ 


















\ 
























■\^ 


\ 
\ 




















1 


\ \ 






















\ V 






















V 






















^ 


















































^ 






















~"-. 


-^-~ 





-^ 




^^ 















































Age 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

Graph 5. — The Two Figure Board. Time. Broken line= 
1915, 309 cases. Solid line=19l6, 978 cases. 

however, shows the advantage of additional cases 
where we have obvious abnormalities in the curve, 
as at age nine. The first group of nine-year-olds 
was not representative of nine-year-olds in gen- 
eral. The addition of more cases has smoothed 
the curve. 

Graph 5 shows the results for the Two Figure 
Board (Time). The addition of 669 cases to the 
first 309 cases has smoothed the original curve some- 

80 



STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

what and has lowered the medians perceptibly at 
ages five and six. 

We offer these results as indicative of the method 
which must be followed in the determination of an 
adequate number of cases for purposes of standardi- 
zation. 

Various Types of Standardization. The num- 
ber of cases necessary is also conditioned by the 
type of standardization we are attempting to make. 
We may at the present time distinguish between 
three types of standardization. 

The simplest type aims at the establishment of 
median or average performances. If we are satis- 
fied with this, a relatively small number of cases 
in each age group may be sufficient. Our interest 
does not center so much upon the whole of the 
curve of distribution as upon the middle part of it. 
Naturally enough, the median will be influenced by 
the distribution as a whole, but obvious discrepan- 
cies at the upper or lower ends need not be dis- 
astrous to the median. This type of standardiza- 
tion is familiar to us in much of the work dealing 
with the standardization of single tests. 

A somewhat more complex type of standardiza- 
tion is presented in the attempt to place a test 
at a specific age in an age scale. The question 
at issue here is as to the percentage of cases that 
must pass a test in order to make the test a valid 
test for the age in question. Seventy-five per cent 
has been generally adopted as the standard, al- 
though various other suggestions have been made. 

81 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

This type of standardization became important in 
dealing with the problem of placing tests in the 
Binet Scale. Binet himself nowhere states specifi- 
cally the percentage of passes necessary to place a 
test. From his actual work we would infer that he 
did not keep to a rigid standard, but fluctuated 
between 60 and 90. In the same way Terman and 
Childs seem to vary in their standard from 60 per 
cent upwards. Pintner,^ in his standardization of 
the Cube Test for age scale purposes, laid most 
stress upon a sharp rise in the curve anywhere above 
60 per cent, emphasizing the point that above this 
percentage the greatest differentiation between any 
two ages would indicate the most suitable age for 
a test. 

Bobertag, Goddard and Kuhlmann adhere much 
more closely to the 75 per cent basis. The justi- 
fication for this method seems to be based on the 
normal curve of distribution. We may assume that 
at each age 50 per cent of the individuals are nor- 
mal and 25 per cent above and 25 per cent below 
normal. If a test is suited to the normal ability 
for children at a specific age, then it will be passed 
by the 50 per cent normal individuals and also by 
the 25 per cent above normal, i.e., by 75 per cent 
of the children altogether. Only the lowest 25 per 
cent will fail. In the arrangement of these per- 
formance tests into a year scale (see Chapter V) 
it will be noted that we have kept to the rigid 75 
per cent standard. This is in part due to the nature 

^ Pintner, R. : Op, cit. 

82 



STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

of the data with which we are dealing. The tests 
for the most part are not scored as mere passes 
or failures. The quality of the performance is 
based, for the most part, upon the time and upon 
the number of moves or errors made. It seemed 
most appropriate, therefore, to mark off the point 
above which 75 per cent of the cases lay and to 
consider any score or time value better than this 
as normal for the age in question. A more ex- 
tended description of the application of this method 
to our tests is given in Chapter V. It is the 
application of the 75 per cent method to tests in- 
volving time or a wide range of scoring. 

The third type of standardization is the percentile 
method. Here the whole range of distribution is 
divided up into as many percentile groups as is 
deemed feasible. These percentiles, if sufficiently 
numerous, give a fairly reliable picture of the dis- 
tribution of the cases. In general practice the divi- 
sion into percentiles has not gone beyond 10 per- 
centiles. This is, indeed, as fine a differentiation as 
we require at the present stage of standardization 
of tests. 

This percentile method of standardization has 
been made use of in some recent studies of mental 
tests by WooUey.® In our standardization the 10 

^ Woolley, H. T., and Fischer, C. R. : "Mental and Physi- 
cal Measurements of Working Children," Psychological Mono- 
graphs, Vol. xviii. No. 1 (1914); and also, Woolley, H. T.: 
"A New Scale of Mental and Physical Measurements for 
Adolescents and Some of Its Uses," Journal of Educational 
Psychology, Vol. vi. No. 9 (1915), pp. 521-550. 

83 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

percentiles have been used. The advantage of this 
type of standardization is due to the fact that it 
allows a comparison of a particular child's per- 
formance with the performance of other children of 
the same age. It is much more desirable to be able 
to compare a specific child with other children 
of the same age than with children of differing 
ages. We can then express the child's ability as 
being equal to that of a 10 or 20 or 60 or 80 per- 
centile child of his own age. It is obvious at once, 
however, that this type of standardization will re- 
quire a greater number of cases in order to give 
reliable norms than either of the other two types. 
Indeed, we must be tolerably certain that we have 
included a fair sampling of all grades of intelli- 
gence at the age in question. 

We may arrive at fairly reliable medians by a 
judicious selection of children, we shall require more 
cases to fix the 75 per cent point, and we shall need 
the greatest number of cases to fix with any degree 
of accuracy the 10 percentile points from zero 
to 100. 

Standardized Tests. The actual work accom- 
plished in the standardization of mental tests for 
the estimation of intelligence may be divided into: 
(1) the standardization of scales, and (2) the stand- 
ardization of individual tests. 

Scales. The work on the standardization of 
scales may be said to have begun with Binet him- 
self. Binet's 1908 scale may be called the first 
standardized scale, and the 1911 revision may be 

84 



STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

looked upon as another standardization of the same 
scale. This was followed in America by the re- 
standardization of the scale for American children 
by Goddard/*^ From this time on we have the 
standardizations of Bobertag, Terman and Childs, 
and Winch, culminating in the greatly modified 
scales of Terman (the Stanford Revision) and in 
the Point Scale by Yerkes and Bridges. With the 
exception of the latter, all these standardizations 
discuss the question of the appropriate placing of 
tests at specific ages. And the chief point in this 
discussion is, as we have mentioned above, the per 
cent of passes necessary to place a test at a specific 
age. It will be needless for us to enter into a 
detailed discussion of these standardizations of the 
Binet tests. The history of this aspect of the sub- 
ject is marked by an increasing accuracy in stand- 
ardization and a growing discussion of the theoret- 
ical assumptions underlying the whole basis of 
standardization. Stern,^^ Kuhlmann ^^ and Ter- 

" Goddard, H. H. : "Two Thousand Normal Children Meas- 
ured by the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of Intelligence," 
Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. xviii (1911), PP- 232-259- 

^^ Stern, W. : "The Psychological Methods of Testing In- 
telligence," Trs. by Whipple, Educational Psychology Mono- 
graphs, No. 13, Warwick and York (1914). 

^- Kuhlmann, F. : "Some Results of Examining a Thousand 
Public School Children with a Revision of the Binet-Simon 
Tests of Intelligence by Untrained Examiners," Journal of 
Psycho-Asthenics, Vol. xviii. No. 3 (March, 1914), pp. 150- 
179; and No. 4 (June, 1914), pp. 233-269; "The Present 
Status of the Binet and Simon Tests of the Intelligence of 
Children," Journal of Psycho-Asthenics, Vol. xvi. No. 3 
(March, 1912), pp. 113-139. 

85 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

man ^^ have added much of value to this phase of the 
question. 

A different kind of standardization has been at- 
tempted by Treves and Saffiotti.^^ The tests of 
Binet and Simon are arranged in order of diffi- 
culty for each age and then grouped into three 
classes according as they are adapted to dull 
(faihles) , average (moyens) or bright (forts) 
children in each age group. This classification of 
dull, average and bright is determined by the per- 
centage of children passing the different tests. All 
tests passed by 60 per cent or more of the children 
are called tests for the dull group ; tests passed by 
from 40 to 60 per cent are called tests for the nor- 
mal group, and tests passed by less than 40 per cent 
are for the bright group. There seems to be no 
principle underlying this division into groups. Just 
why these particular percentages are chosen we are 
not told. That a middle 30 per cent of the chil- 
dren should be chosen as representing the average 
seems strange. Forty per cent are relegated to the 
dull group and 30 per cent to the bright group. 

^^ Terman, L. M. : "The Binet-Simon Scale for Measuring 
Intelligence; Impressions Gained by Its Application on Four 
Hundred Non-selected Children," Psychological Clinic, Vol. 
V (1911), pp. 199-206, 239-244. 

Terman and Childs: "A Tentative Revision and Extension 
of the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of Intelligence," Jour- 
nal of Educational Psychology, Vol. iii (1912), pp. 61-74, 
133-143, 198-208, 277-289. 

^* SafBotti, U. : "L'echelle metrique de I'intelligence de 
Binet-Simon modifiee selon la methode Treves-Saffiotti," 
L'annee psychologique, Vol. xviii (1912), pp. 327-340. 

86 



STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

Under each of these three groups 3 smaller sub- 
groups are given. It seems strange that the authors 
did not assume the normal curve of distribution 
and use it as the basis of their classification/^ As 
it is, the classification is loose and arbitrary in the 
extreme. Historically it would seem to fore- 
shadow the percentile method. The grouping of 
children into percentiles and the use of the per- 
centile as a description of the child's mental status 
are a distinct advance in clearness of thinking over 
the arbitrary grouping proposed by Treves and 
Saffiotti. 

Apart from the Binet Scale, there have been 
very few other scales established or standardized. 
De Sanctis' Scale ^® appeared about 1906 with 
scarcely any attempt at standardization. It was 
the aim of de Sanctis primarily to try to group 
different grades of known mental deficiency, or 
at most to pick out the feeble-minded among normal 
children. In his own words: "Je puis conclure en 
general que la serie, avec les modifications que j'y 
ai portees jusqu' a ce jour, donne certainement 
d'excellents resultats pour les enf ants et adolescents 
foibles de sept a seize ans." ^^ No statistical 
presentation of the material such as we are now 
familiar with in works on standardization was 

^^ Pintner, R., and Paterson, D. G. : "A Psychological Basis 
for the Diagnosis of Feeble-mindedness," Journal of Criminal 
Law and Criminology, Vol. vii, No. 1 (1916), pp. 32-55. 

^^ de Sanctis, S. : "Types et degres d'insuffisance mentale/* 
L'annee psychologique. Vol. xii (1906), pp. 70-83. 

^^ Idem, p. 80. 

87 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

given at that time. Recently a standardization and 
modification of this scale for American children has 
been made by Martin/^ 

The scale of performance tests arranged by 
Knox ^^ seems to be the only other attempt at the 
standardization of a whole scale. The standardi- 
zation of Knox's Scale is obviously inadequate, as 
the author realizes. The scale was constructed to 
fill immediate and urgent practical needs in the 
work of detecting mentally defective immigrants. 
The tests making up the rough year scale devised 
by Knox are largely of the performance type. 
Some have been devised by Knox himself, together 
with borrowings and adaptations of tests of Binet, 
Healy and others. Interesting norms of perform- 
ance have been obtained by Knox for children of 
different nationalities at different ages. 

Lastly, a scale of tests for adolescents has been 
proposed by Woolley.^^ It is the outcome of meas- 
urements on from 600 to 800 adolescents of ages 
fourteen and fifteen. It is of interest as being 
a very distinct departure in every way from the 

■^^ Martin, L. : "A Contribution to the Standardization of 
the de Sanctis Tests," Training School Bulletin, Vol. xiii, No. 
4 (1916), pp. 93-110. 

i^Knox, H. A.: "A Scale, Based on the Work at Ellis 
Island, for Estimating Mental Defect," Journal of the Ameri- 
can Medical Association, Vol. Ixii (March 7, 1914), pp. 741- 
747. 

2° Woolley, H. T. : "A New Scale of Mental and Physical 
Measurements for Adolescents, and Some of Its Uses," Jour- 
nal of Educational Psychology, Vol. vi. No. 9 (1915), pp. 
521-550. 

88 



STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

Billet type of scale. None of the tests belongs 
to the original Binet group of tests and the method 
of evaluating the results is the percentile method. 
We shall refer in more detail to the percentile 
method in Chapter VIII. It is sufficient to re- 
mark here that this is the first attempt known to 
the writers to evaluate performance in reference to 
percentile points for each age. Constant use of 
the percentile method would very soon lead us to 
attach very definite meanings to such terms as 10 
percentile ability or 70 percentile ability and so 
forth. 

In regard to the tests used in Woolley's Scale, 
it is to be noted that none of them is taken from 
the Binet Scale. They cover a wide range, includ- 
ing physical tests, tests of motor ability, as well as 
purely mental tests. The radical difference be- 
tween Woolley's Scale and the one presented here 
is the inclusion in the former of many tests involv- 
ing language. The drawback of Woolley's Scale 
at the present time is its limited scope, since it has 
only been standardized for ages fourteen and fif- 
teen. It must be recognized, however, that the 
standardization for these ages is very thorough. 
It is much more complete than the standardization 
of any group of tests made up to the present time. 

Individual Tests. In addition to the standardi- 
zation of the scales referred to above, we have also 
the standardization of individual mental tests. 
These tests vary all the way from very inadequate 
and incomplete standardizations to very accurate 

89 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

and thorough ones. These standardizations are 
interesting from the fact that they have broadened 
considerably the discussion of our problem and 
indicated types of standardization in addition to the 
age scale type. 

Healy's ^^ first description of his performance 
tests was not accompanied by anything in the way 
of an adequate standardization. His emphasis in 
this work was laid upon the tentative nature of 
his results, to quote: "but it is to be distinctly un- 
derstood that we ourselves still regard our tests and 
methods as strictly tentative." ^^ There is no direct 
reference to the question of standardization, and 
no attempt made at it. Sample performances of a 
few cases on each test are given, but these are of 
course useless to guide any other worker in regard 
to what sort of a performance he may expect at 
any stage of intelligence. Doubtless, constant use 
of a test will give the worker some idea of what a 
child can be expected to do, but this is always un- 
certain and of no help to other workers. 

That a standardization of these tests was felt 
to be desirable is evidenced by the appearance of 
the work of Schmitt,^^ "done by the author while 
psychologist at the Chicago Psychopathic Insti- 
ll Healy, W., and Fernald, G. M.: "Tests for Practical 
Mental Classification," Psychological Monographs, Vol. xiii. 
No. 2, Whole No. 54 (March, 191 1). 
^^ Idem, p. 3. 

^^ Schmitt, C. : "Standardization of Tests for Defective 
Children," Psychological Monographs, Vol. xix, No. 3, Whole 
No. 83 (1915). 

90 



STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

tiite." This work is unfortunate, however, in two 
respects: first, in the type of children selected, 
and secondly, in the small number of cases at each 
age. The children tested were from "the kinder- 
garten and first six grades of a private school in 
Chicago. . . . They were the children of people of 
the professional class mainly." ^* A further de- 
scription of these children and the school they 
attended makes it clear that they are distinctly 
above the average child. We are safe in conclud- 
ing that the norms established on such a group will 
be too high. Secondly, the number of children at 
each age is seldom much above twenty, and at some 
ages is considerably below. It is doubtful whether 
a valid median or average performance can be 
obtained from such a small number. If the group 
were very homogeneous, as the author claims, such 
might be the case ; but the homogeneity of the sub- 
jects is not so apparent wherever we can guess at 
the distribution from the presentation of the results 
as given. 

In Healy's ^^ later description of these tests he 
devotes a paragraph to norms, making use of 
Schmitt's work, to quote: "Some of her results are 
embodied in our statement of norms." ^^ In some 
cases the norms of Healy seem to have been taken 
directly from Schmitt's work, and in other cases to 

-* Healy, W. : Op. cit., p. 2. 

^° Healy, W. : The Individual Delinquent, Little, Brown 
and Co. (1915). 
^^ Idem, p. 106. 

91 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

have been supplied from his own experience with 
the tests. They are for the most part decidedly- 
vague and confusing, and can scarcely lay claim to 
adequate standardization. 

Another standardization of a group of tests, in- 
cluding four of the Healy tests, has appeared in 
the work of Hall.^^ It does not lay any claim to 
completeness in any respect, and the conditions im- 
posed upon the investigators did not allow them to 
test more than 180 (30 each at ages seven, eight, 
nine, ten, eleven and twelve) unselected public 
school children. The rest of the children tested 
were inmates of feeble-minded institutions or of 
orphan asylums. The data accumulated from this 
group include over a thousand cases and are in- 
teresting, although of doubtful value for general 
standardization purposes. Furthermore, the value 
of establishing norms on the basis of the mental 
age as determined by the Binet or any other scale 
is a questionable procedure. It is based upon the 
presumption that the Binet Scale is the final and 
only court of appeal for establishing the mental age 
of a child. This is rather a bold assumption to 
make at this time. Tests so standardized could 
never be used as correctives and complements of 
the Binet Scale, and it is the feeling of the writers 
that such correctives and complements of the Binet 
Scale are at present required. 

"^"^ Hall, G. : "Eleven Mental Tests Standardized," Eugenics 
and Social Welfare Bulletin, No. V, State Board of Charities, 
Albany, New York (1915). 

92 



STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

The results of the 180 pubhc school children 
seem too few to make a satisfactory standardiza- 
tion, yet they have formed a beginning in the 
standardization of these tests. Unfortunately no 
tables of distribution are presented so that they 
cannot be incorporated into the work of others 
who are accumulating data on these tests. It 
would seem to the writers very desirable that each 
worker should publish the results in such form 
that they might be added to the data of other 
workers. 

The standardization of the Form Board by Syl- 
vester ^^ marks a distinct advance to a more minute 
analysis and a more accurate standardization of a 
particular test. In all 1,537 children were tested, at 
ages ranging from five to fourteen. There were 
from 80 to 221 children at each age, and we have 
the data presented in such a form as to be readily 
accessible to other workers, so much so that we 
have incorporated this test as standardized by Syl- 
vester into the present scale. The children were 
an almost unselected group of ordinary school chil- 
dren, so that we may take it for granted that the 
norms will be fairly representative for children of 
the ages tested. The table of distribution of the 
cases has given us the opportunity of making use 
of the data in the various ways in which our scale 
of performance tests is presented. 

No advance upon this work seems to have been 

^^ Sylvester, R. H.: "The Form Board Test," Psychologi- 
cal Monographs, Vol. xv. No. 4, Whole No. Q5 (1913). 

93 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

made by Young,^^ who presents another standardi- 
zation of the form board. The form board used in 
this standardization is unfortunately of a different 
kind from the one used by Sylvester or the one used 
by Goddard. It is so different as to make invalid 
a comparison of the two standardizations or a com- 
bination of the two sets of data. A comparison and 
a combination of the data obtained by Young and 
Sylvester would have been interesting and valuable, 
if such could have been made. A comparison would 
have shown us how much, if at all, the distribution 
of the results differed, and if they differed, the 
combination of all the results would have led to a 
still more accurate standardization. The amount 
of difference in the resulting norms from those pre- 
viously obtained would have served as an indication 
of the reliability of the ultimate standardization. 

Pintner,^^ in his work with the Cube Test, has 
presented a standardization based on 867 cases. 
He has suggested there the method of watching the 
fluctuation of the results with the addition of more 
data, as a criterion for a sufficient number of cases 
for a satisfactory standardization. His adaptation of 
the original test has broadened the scope of the test. 

Pintner and Anderson,^^ in their standardization 

^^ Young, H. A.: "The Witmer Form Board/' Psychological 
Clinic, Vol. X, No. 4 (1916), pp. 93-111. 

^° Pintner, R. : "The Standardization of Knox's Cube Test," 
Psychological Review, Vol. xxii, No. 5 (1915), pp. 377-401. 

^^ Pintner, R., and Anderson, M. M. : "The Picture Com- 
pletion Test." Educational Psychology Monographs. War- 
wick and York, Baltimore (1917). 

94 



STANDARDIZATION OF THE TESTS 

of the Picture Completion Test, have given a mi- 
nute analysis of the test and an exact standardiza- 
tion of procedure and interpretation of results. 
The method of scoring adopted aims to set an ob- 
jective, in place of a subjective, evaluation of the 
result of the performance. These two last stand- 
ardizations have been made use of in the present 
scale. 

A standardization of the Healy Construction 
Puzzle "A" has been made by Bruckner and 
King.^^ The study is very incomplete, since it deals 
only with eight- and ten-year-old children. Ninety 
eight-year-olds and 59 ten-year-olds were tested. 
As far as these norms go, they appear to be very 
good, and reference has been made to them in the 
previous chapter in the description of this test. 
This study falls in line with the others that take 
up a minute analysis of a particular test. 

A form board called the "Arrow Board" has 
recently been described and partly standardized by 
Dunham.^^ He has reported results for 184 high 
school pupils aged fifteen, sixteen, seventeen and 
eighteen. The number of subjects tested and the 
nature of the selection of subjects make the test 
of little value in practical clinical work at the pres- 
ent time. 

^^ Bruckner, L., and King, I. : "A Study of the Fernald 
Form Board," Psychological Clinic, Vol. ix. No. 9 (1916), 
pp. 249-258. 

^^ Dunham, F. L. : "The Arrow-Board, an Adult 'Form 
Board Test/ " Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. xxiii, No. 2 (June, 
1916). 

95 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

In summing up this brief resume of the most 
important work on standardization, we may note 
that the general trend at the present time seems to 
be toward a more minute analysis of each test and 
toward the accumulation of a greater number of 
cases at each age. We have left out of considera- 
tion a great many mental tests that are not at pres- 
ent used for the diagnosis of intelligence.^* Our 
aim has been to deal with those tests bearing more 
directly upon our special problem. Our criticism 
of much of the standardization has been from the 
point of view of its inadequacy, both in regard to 
the presentation of the data and in regard to the 
number of cases examined. With regard to the 
number of cases examined we are well aware of the 
limitations of our own data, but in regard to the 
presentation we hope that we have given it in such 
a form that it may be useful for other workers, so 
that it may be added to in the future and manipu- 
lated in any way that future methods of standardi- 
zations may require. 

^* For a complete account of such tests see Whipple, G. M. : 
A Manual of Mental and Physical Tests, Two Volumes, War- 
wick and York (1914-15). 



CHAPTER IV 

THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

Tables of Distribution. The data on the score 
sheets have all been arranged in tables of distribu- 
tion (see Tables 1 to 21). It has been our aim 
to make the distribution as extensive as possible. 
Wherever feasible small steps were used. The 
smallest is that of one second, as in Table 3, show- 
ing the results for the Seguin Form Board.^ In 
the other cases of time distribution such a small 
step would have been impossible owing to the large 
number of steps that would have been required. In 
these cases a compromise was resorted to and rela- 
tively short steps were taken for the shorter times 
where the majority of cases was likely to fall, and 
relatively longer steps at the upper end for the 
longer time periods. In general, steps of 10 sec- 
onds were made from to 100, and from there 
up to 300 (the time limit) steps of 25 seconds were 
used. This is the arrangement in Tables 12, 10, 
6, 4 and 8. In Tables 1 and 14 the shorter steps 
of 10 seconds were extended beyond the 100 second 

^ This table has been copied from Sylvester, R. H. : "The 
Form Board Test," Psychological Monographs, Vol. xv, No.; 
4, Whole No. 65 (1918). 

97 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

limit. In Table 17 a slight modification was intro- 
duced in order to allow of a grouping of cases 
according to the number of minutes taken to pass 
the test. 

In regard to the tables showing the number of 
moves or errors, or the score made, the same policy 
was adhered to. Tables 16, 18, 20 and 21 give each 
possible step of the score to be obtained on those 
tests. Table 19 is given in steps of 10 up to 250, 
and from there on in steps of 50 and 100 because 
of the large scores obtainable by the method of 
scoring adopted. Table 2 goes up by steps of 1 
to 14, since no case made more than 14 errors in 
a completed performance. Tables 13 and 11 are 
arranged according to steps of 1 up to 20 and 
by steps of 5 beyond. Table 7 is arranged in steps 
of 1 up to 25, with steps of 5 beyond. Tables 5 
and 9 are arranged in steps of 1 up to 15 and 
steps of 2 beyond. Table 15 goes by steps of 5 up 
to 100. 

The distribution in all the tables is given for 
ages four to sixteen inclusive. In most tests there 
are very few cases at ages four and sixteen, and we 
do not pretend that reliable norms have been ob- 
tained at these ages. Ages fourteen and fifteen 
have relatively few cases and our standardization 
for these ages is very uncertain. We have, how- 
ever, decided to include all the data that we were 
able to obtain so that it might be added to in the 
future. 

The last line in the tables of distribution just 

98 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

above the line giving the total number of cases at 
each age is marked D.N.C. (Did Not Complete). 
This shows the number of cases which did not com- 
plete the test within the time limit. All cases which 
did not complete within the time limit were so 
marked both for time and for errors or moves, since 
in such cases the number of moves or errors at the 
end of the time limit was not comparable with the 
number of moves or errors made by an individual 
completing the test. At the bottom of each of the 
tables of distribution are given the median, the 75 
percentile and 25 percentile, and finally the 
quartile, which serves as a measure of the range 
of distribution. 

The graphs for each of the tests show the median 
(solid line) and the 75 and 25 percentiles (dotted 
lines). The space between the two percentile 
curves represents the amount of variation among 
the middle 50 per cent. 

The Mare and Foal Test 

Time. (Table 1 and Graph 6.) The distribu- 
tion shows relatively little scattering. It is obvi- 
ously a test where ability to deal with the situation 
increases fairly rapidly from age five to age ten 
at least. Only 5 children fail to complete the test 
and these are all aged eight or below. No child 
completes it in less than 10 seconds. The curve 
for the medians shows a steady and uniform de- 
crease to age eleven, from which age onwards no 

99 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Table 1. The Mare and Foal Test. Time. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 

9 
6 

1 
16 


16 

2 

2 




Time 
10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
,100, 

"Tib 

120 
130 
140 
150 
160 
170 
180 
190 
200 
225 
250 
275 
300 + 
D. N. C. 
Total 


1 


2 
4 
4 
1 

3^ 
3 
3 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 
29 


3 
11 

6 
13 
10 

7 

5 

2 

2 

67i 


2 

18 

16 

4 

18 

7 

4 

6 

2 

1 

1 

1 

3 

1 
85 


10 
23 

22 

20 

7 

6 

3 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

98 


14 
19 

23 
7 
4 
4 

72 


18 

31 

18 

6 

2 
1 

.. 
1 

77 


27 

34 

13 

5 

1 

1 

81 


2 
21 
23 
11 
7 
3 
3 

70 


3 

22 
12 
5 

42 


1 
11 

11 
3 

1 

27 


667 






75%ile 




75 


55 


41 


38 


32 


31 


27 


27 


24 


26 


24 






Median 




107* 


71 


62 


48 


41 


36 


34 


35 


29 


31 


28 






25%ile 




160 


92 


77 


59 


49 


45 


40 


46 


33 


38 


35 






Quartile 




42.5 


18.5 


18 


10.5 


8.5 


7.0 


6.5 


9.5 


4.5 


6.0 


5.5 







marked increase in rapidity in solving the test isj 
shown. The variation in performance among the| 
younger children is greater than the variation 
among the older children. On the whole, the va- 
riation at any age (with the exception of age five) 
is not great. 

100 



Time 

160 

150 

140 

130 

120 

110 

100 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 





























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V \ 






















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^N 




















\ ^ 


"• 


^. 


















\ 
\ 






















\ 


-^ 


N 


^--^ 






















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' «.^'' 














"*' 




— 



















































4 5 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

Graph 6. — The Mare and Foal Test. Time. 



Table 2. The Mare and Foal Test. Errors. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Errors 


J. 

2. 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
13 
13 
14 

D. N. C 

Total 


• 


1 


1 

4 
4 
3 
6 
1 
1 
2 
1 
2 
1 
1 
2 
29 


5 

7 
12 
12 
10 

7 
5 

2 
3 

1 
1 
1 

1 
67 


7 
17 
16 
14 
7 
10 
4 
3 
1 

2 

1 
1 
1 

1 
85 


13 

28 

-joi: 

1'6 
10 
5 

2 

98 


12 

22 
10 
12 

4 
6 

2 
2 
2 

72 


22 
19 
15 
10 
7 
2 


15 

23 
19 
15 

7 

81 


17 
15 
17 
14 

2 
2 
2 

1 
70 


11 
11 
11 

4 
4 
1 

42 


5 
8 
9 

27 


2 
3 
6 

2 
2 
1 

16 


1 
2 


667 


75%ile 




5 


2 


1 


1 


1 





1 


1 


1 


1 


1 






Median 




7 


3 


3 


2 


2 


1 


2 


2 


1 


2 


2 






25%ile 




11 


5 


5 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


2 


2 


3 






Quartile 




3.0 


1.5 


2.0 


1.0 


1.0 


1.5 


1.0 


1.0 


0.5 


0.5 


1.0 







101 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Errors. (Table 2 and Graph 7.) The distribu- 
tion table shows much the same appearance as the 
one for the time. There are a great many cases 
completing the test with no errors. The curve 
showing the median number of errors at each age 
is not very uniform. From age eight upwards it 
fluctuates continually between 1 and 2 errors. 























\ 




















\ 
\ 




















\ 




















\ 




















\ \ 




















\ \ 




















\ \ 
\ \ 




S 
















\ \ 




\ 

\ 
















\ 




'^v^ 










"-^ 




^^^' 




"^^^ 






^\^ 






'^^ 


^^ 












"^^^ 


,,■''' 











Age 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 

Graph 7. — The Mare and Foal Test. Errors. 

The drop at age ten shows a remarkably good per- 
formance for the ten-year-olds. The percentiles 
show a fairly narrow range. At no age is the quar- 
tile greater than 2 errors (with the exception of 
age five ) . 



The Seguin Form Board 

Time. (Table 3 and Graph 8.) This distribu- 
tion taken from Sylvester is exceptionally good. 
Some of it is due to the fact, as we have noted else- 
where, that exceptionally dull or nervous children 
were excluded. This accounts for the lack of scat- 

102 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

Table 3. The Seguin Form Board. Time. 



Age 


5 (] 


7 8 


9 1 


) 


11 


12 


13 


14 




Time 




















• 9 












2 




4- 


8 




10 












2 


6 


3 


18 






11 












4 


17 


15 


16 






IS- 










3 


17 


21 


23 


16 






IS- 








'. 4 1 


r 


19 


20 


11 


9 






-Il- 








2 9 2 


1 


29 


31 


11 


6 






ls 






'. i 


S 30 3 


3 


39 


22 


•6 


4 






16 






5 1 


8 26 2 


5 


26 


8 


6 


2 






17 






5 2 


29 2 


s 


17 


9 


2 


1 






18 






6 10 1 


3 31 1 


5 


7 


2 










19 






6 8 1 


9 19 2 


2 


4 


1 














20 




'. 1 


1 13 -3' 


r 19 1 


1 


2 


2 














Jl 




1 


2 24 12 


8' 8 


9 


1 


1 














22 


1 


7 18 1 


8 10 


2 


2 
















23' 


2 


6 13 1 


2 6 


i 




i 














24 


2 2 


1 17 


4v 3 


6 


i 
















25 


1 1 


4 7 


6 4 






















26- 


5 1 


1 16 


6 4 


2 






















27' 


1 


9 13 


2 2 


1 






















28 


3 1 


1 5 


5 2 
























29 


4 


5 6 


2 3 
























30 


2 1 


4 


3 1 
























31 


1 


1 2 


1 3 
























32 


3 


9 


2- 
























33 


3 


3 3 


























34 


5 


6 1 


'. 1 
























35 


6 


3 


























36 


1 


1 1 


























37 


2 


3 


























38 


6 




























39 


3 




























40 


2 




























41 


2 




























42 


5 




























43 


4 




























44 


2 




























45 


2 




























46 


1 




























47 


1 




























48 


1 




























49 


1 




























50 


2 




























51 






























52 






























53 


i 




























54 






























55 


i '. 




























56 


3 


. 


























57 






























58 


i 




























75 


1 




























Total.... 


80 r 


173 20 


6 214 22 


1 


172 


141 


8rf 


80 


1537 


75%ile.. 


30 s 


3 21 1 


8 16 1 


5 


13 


12 


11 


10 




Median . . 


37 S 


,6 23 5 


18 1 


6 


15 


14 


12 


11 




-- 


25%ile.. 


43 J 


!0 26 i 


.2 20 1 


9 


16 


15 


14 


13 




Quartile. . 


6.5 3 


.5 2.5 2 


.0 2.0 2 


.0 


1.5 


1.5 


1.5 


1.5 





103 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 



tering cases on the table — a phenomenon that is 
generally observed on all the other tables of dis- 
tribution. This scattering, however, would not 
spoil the general upward trend of the table, which 
is reflected by the constant and steady decrease of 
the medians for each age. The percentiles keep 



Time 
45 



\ 


















\ 

\ 

. \ 

\ \ 


















\ \ 
\ \ 
\ \ 


















\ \ 


















\ 




^\^ 


-^^ 


















^ 


:^ 


~\^ 


















^^-~ 


--^^ 


-■-^ 


^ 







































Age 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

Graph 8. — The Seguin Form Board. Time. 

fairly close to the median all the way along, and 
the very narrow range of variation of the middle 
50 per cent is indicative of the value of this test for 
the purpose of differentiating grades of intelli- 
gence. At no age is the quartile greater than 6.5 
seconds and at most ages it varies from 1.5 to 2.0 
seconds. The longest time record, made by a five- 
year-old child, is 75 seconds, while the shortest, 
made by 14 individuals, is 9 seconds. 

104 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

The Five Figure Form Board 

Time. (Table 4 and Graph 9.) The distribu- 
tion here is not so compact as in the previous test. 
This may be due partly to our policy of absolute 
nonselection of cases, and partly to the fact that 
the puzzle board idea, which introduces a slight ele- 
ment of chance, may influence the performance of 
the test to a very slight extent. There are cases 
of inability to complete the test at all ages up to 



Table 4. The Five Figure Form Board. Time. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Time 

20 

30 
- 40 

60 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100^ 
125. 
150 
175 
200- 
225 
250 
275 
300 
D. N. C. 


1 
1 

1 

1 
7 


3 
1 
5 

2 
1 

2 

1 

28 


1 

1 

2 
5 
4 
7 
6 
6 

12 
6 
7 
7 
5 
1 
2 
1 

41 


1 
3 
8 
8 
8 

13 
6 

14 
7 
7 
6 
3 
2 
1 
1 

24 


2 
5 

14 

20 

10 

12 

12 

10 

19 

3 

7 

2 

5 

1 

5 

10 


7 
7 
16 
10 

7 
8 
6 
7 
6 
2 
1 
1 
2 
3 

10 


1 
9 
18 
14 
13 
8 
7 
7 
12 
9 
4 
2 


3 

12 

23 

16 

18 

13 

6 

8 

8 

2 

2 

4 

4 

1 

1 

1 


6 

15 

18 

17 

11 

7 

7 

5 

8 

1 

2 

1 

3 

2 


6 
17 

7 
10 
6 
2 
3 
2 
1 

1 


5 
2 
6 
6 
6 
3 
1 
1 
3 

1 
1 
2 


3 

2 
3 

2 
4 

1 
2 

2 


1 
2 




Total 


11 


54 


114 


112 


137 


93 


106 


122 


103 


55 


37 


19 


3 


9G6 


75%ile 


200 


139 


112 


80 


67 


56 


49 


48 


43 


35 


45 


38 






Median .... 


D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


200 


117 


97 


79 


69 


64 


58 


47 


59 


55 






25%ile.... 


D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


225 


146 


132 


107 


91 


85 


63 


80 


75 






Quartile. . . . 








72.5 


39.5 


38.0 


29.0 


21.5 


21.0 


14.0 


17.5 


18.5 







105 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE 

Time 

D.N.CJ 



TESTS 







\ 






















\ 






















\ 






















\ 






















\ 
























\ 
















\ 




\ 


\ 
\ 




















\ 


\ 
\ 
















\ 




\ 


\ 


,__ 
















\^ 


\ 




^V^ 














V 




"\, 




^^ 


^ 














X 




^^ 




~""~-~ 





^ 












^^--.- 


.,_ 


■"--- 






~^V^ 


,.-■■' 


~~~~- 










'~~ 


-•— ~. 




__ 






■ 


















-T" 



























Age 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

Graph 9- — The Five Figure Form Board. Time. 

eleven. At ages four and five more than half 
of the children are unable to complete the test. 
It is evidently a distinctly harder test than the 
Seguin Form Board. The shortest time to com- 
plete the test is between 20 and 30 seconds. No 
children under ten are able to complete it in this 
shortest time period. The graph shows a very 
marked increase in ability to solve the test up to 
about age twelve, and the amount of variation de- 
creases constantly to that age. 

Errors. (Table 5 and Graph 10.) The distri- 
bution of the errors shows a great scattering, al- 
though the median as shown on the graph indicates 
a constant decrease in the number of errors up 
to age twelve. Three or four errors is the general 
expectation for children above age eight. At this 
age and below the number increases rapidly from 

106 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

Table 5. The Five Figure Form Board. Errors. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Errors 



1 

2 

3 

4, 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
11 
15 
17 
19 
21 
23 
25 
27 
29 
31 
D.N. C. 


. 


1 
1 

1 

8 


2 

3 
4 

2 

1 
1 

28 


2 
3 
6 
6 
6 
7 
5 
3 
5 
3 
4 
1 
1 
4 
2 
8 
3 

2 
1 
1 
1 

1 
39 


4 
5 
3 
14 
10 
7 
9 

12 
3 
3 
2 
3 
2 

5 

2 
2 
1 
1 

24 


4 

10 

11 

22 

6 

14 

11 

11 

5 

2 

3 

2 

3 

1 

4 

5 

5 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

10 


1 
1 
1 
1 


5 
1 



8 
3 
6 
6 

2 
2 
6 
2 
2 

9 


1 

1 
1 
1 


9 
3 
6 
3 
4 
7 
5 
6 
6 
5 
2 
3 
1 

3 

2 

1 




8 
8 
9 
1 
6 

2 
6 
5 
2 
3 
2 
1 
3 


11 
19 
15 
15 

6 
10 
10 

5 

2 
2 
3 




6 
1 

8 
7 
6 


1 
2 

1 
1 

1 


1 


6 

5 
1 
3 
3 

1 
2 

1 

1 
1 

1 

1 
1 


1 
3 
4 
1 
1 
1 
5 


■ 


1 

2 






Total 


11 


54 


114 


112 


137 


93 


106 


122 


103 


56 


37 


19 


3 


966 


75%ile.... 




11 


5 


4 


3 


2 


2 


2 


1 


1 


2 


2 






Median. . . . 


D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


14 


7 


6 


4 


4 


4 


3 


3 


3 


4 






25%ile.... 




D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


19 


12 


8 


7 


6 


6 


5 


6 


6 






Quartile. . . . 








7.5 


4.5 


3.0 


2.5 


2.0 


2.5 


2.0 


2.0 


2.0 


_ 





six to inability to complete the test. At all ages 
from six upwards there are children who complete 
the test without making any errors. 



107 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 



Errors 

D.N.C 






























\ 






















\ 


20 




\ 


\ 


\ 
\ 
















15 


\ 
\ 

\ 


\ 




\ 
\ 
\ 

\ 
















\ 
\ 
\ 

\ 


> 


\ 


\ 
\ 

\ 
\ 
















10 


\ 


\ 


\ 




\ 

\ 
















\ 

\ 
\ 
\ 


\ 




\ 
\ 

\ 














5 




\ 

\ 
\ 
\ 


\ 


"^ 


\ 




"^--^ 




"^^^ -''' 








^*^^ 


"--^^ 


\ 












^ 
































'"^^^ 




-' 











Age 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

Graph 10. — The Five Figure Form Board. Errors. 



The Two Figure Form Board 

Time. (Table 6 and Graph 11.) The distri- 
bution again suggests a sHght element of chance 
due to the puzzle nature of the board. The scatter- 
ing at some ages is very great. The median, how- 
ever, shows a very marked decrease at every age 
from four to nine, from which point onward it 
drops much more slowly to age thirteen. The 
variation of the middle 50 per cent as shown by 
the percentile curves is fairly great at the lower 
ages and the tendency for it to decrease with age 
is interrupted by the rise of the 25 percentile at 
age ten. There are cases of inability to complete 

108 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

this test at all ages from four to eleven inclusive 
and in addition an isolated case at age fourteen. 
The shortest time taken to complete the test lies 
between 10 and 20 seconds and there are children 
at all ages from eight to fifteen who are able to 
complete the test within this shortest time period. 

Moves. (Table 7 and Graph 12.) What has 
been said in regard to the time applies equally well 
to the number of moves taken to complete the test. 

Table 6. The Two Figure Form Board. Time. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Time 

10 

20 

30 

40 

SO 

60 

70 

80 

90 
100 
125 
150 
175 
200 
225 
250 
275 
300 
D. N. C. 


1 





1 

1 

2 
4 
1 
4 
1 
6 
4 
2 
1 
2 
1 

3 

21 


3 
5 
10 

8 
8 
5 
1 
5 
2 
6 
6 
4 
1 
3 
2 
2 
2 
45 


4 

6 

12 

13 

7 
6 
2 
2 
9 
6 
7 
6 
1 
2 
3 
3 
1 
25 


1 

15 

22 

19 

12 

10 

P 

10 

2 

12 

3 

4 

4 

3 

1 

2 

1 

1 

12 


2 
15 
21 
11 
8 
7 
3 
3 
5 
4 
2 
4 

1 
1 
1 

7 


2 

22 

18 

15 

6 

4 

2 

3 

2 

14 

4 

3 

1 

2 

1 

7 


4 
43 
23 
15 

5 

7 
4 
7 

3 

1 
2 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 


2 

27 

24 

15 

11 

10 

1 

3 

2 

5 

1 

1 

1 


9 

22 
9 
7 
2 

1 
1 
3 

1 


1 


4 
3 
6 

2 
6 

1 

1 

3 

2 

1 




2 
7 
3 

1 

2 

2 
1 
1 




2 






Total 


10 


54 


118 


115 


142 


95 


106 


123 


103 


55 


39 


19 


2 


980 


75%ile.... 


D. N. C. 


89 


65 


56 


39 


34 


31 


27 


26 


23 


26 


25 






Median .... 


D. N. C. 


200 


175 


116 


62 


47 


47 


38 


39 


29 


35 


54 






25% lie.... 


D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


284 


116 


94 


112 


64 


59 


43 


58 


80 






Quartile 








114.0 


38.5 


30.0 


40.5 


18.5 


16.5 


10.0 


16.0 


27.5 







109 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 



Time 
D.N.C 



260 



220 

200 





























\ 


















\\ 




\^ 


















l\ 






\ 
















\ \ 






\ 
















\ \ 






\ 
















\ \ 






\ 
















\ 
\ 






\ 
















\ 

\ 




s. 


\ 

\ 
















\ 

\ 




\, 


\ 
















\ 




\ 


\ 
















\ 






s. 


-^^ 


^^^ 


\ 












^ 




\ 




"'' 


\ 












^-^ 


^^ 


\ 






M 






^/^ 










^^ 








Z>fl^^ 

























= — ^ 





Age 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

Graph 11. — The Two Figure Form Board. Time. 



Moves 
D.N.C. 

44 
39 
34 
29 
24 
19 
14 






\ 


















1 




\ 




\ 

\ 
\ 

> 
























\ 
\ 

\ 
















\\ 






\ 
\ 

\ 
















\\ 






\ 

\ 
\ 
\ 
















\ 


^ 


\ 


\ 
\ 

\ 


.^ 




\ 








1 
1 


\ 






\ 


"^ 




\ 
\ 








1 
1 
1 










^ 


-^^ 


:::rr 


:::::: 


:S 


~~- 




Q 


— 


~~^^^ 



Age 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

Graph 12. — The Two Figure Form Board. Moves. 



'^ilH 



110 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

Table 7. The Two Figure Form Board. Moves. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Moves 

9 
-10 

11 

12 

13- 

14 

15 

le- 

17 

18 
19 
20 
21 

22 
23 
24 
25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
D. N. C. 


1 





1 

3 
2 
2 
2 
5 
3 
2 
2 
1 

2 
1 

3 

2 

2 
21 


9 
6 
9 

5 
6 
4 

1 
3 
1 
4 

1 

1 
4 

9 

1 
2 
3 
2 
45 


4 

7 
8 
8 
9 
5 
3 
5 
3 
1 
3 
4 
4 
2 
1 
2 
4 
4 
6 
3 
4 
25 


16 
12 
18 
8 
13 
6 
6 
7 
4 
3 
5 
4 
6 
1 
3 
3 
5 
4 
3 
1 
2 
12 


11 
14 
17 
9 
9 
4 
3 

4 

2 
2 
2 
1 

1 
1 

1 
4 
1 

2 

7 


12 
15 
17 
5 
9 
3 
5 
2 

3 
3 
2 
1 
2 
3 
3 
6 
2 
4 
1 
1 
7 


23 
20 
21 
11 

7 
4 
7 
3 
2 

3 
1 
3 
3 
1 

3 
2 
1 
3 
1 
3 


14 
13 
17 
13 

7 
8 
7 
6 
3 
3 
3 

1 

1 
1 
4 

1 

1 


9 
13 
11 

5 

7 

2 

1 
1 

1 

1 
1 

1 
1 

1 


8 
8 
6 
7 
1 
1 

1 

1 

1 

1 
1 
1 

1 


5 

4 
2 

1 
2 
3 


2 




Total 


10 


54 


118 


115 


142 


95 


106 


123 


103 


55 


38 


19 


2 


980 


75%ile.... 


D. N. C. 


15 


13 


13 


11 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


9 






Median .... 


D. N. C. 


21 


24 


20 


14 


12 


13 


11 


13 


11 


11 


11 

23 






25%ile 


0. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


40 


21 


18 


22 


15 


15 


13 


12 






Quartile. . . . 








13.5 


5.0 


4.0 


6.0 


2.5 


2.5 


1.5 


1.0 


7.0 







The scattering is fairly great and the median per- 
formance does not improve with regularity from 
age to age. The percentiles indicate a wide varia- 
tion at the lower ages. There are cases of chil- 
dren completing the test with the shortest nmnber 
of moves possible (i.e., 9) at all ages from six 
upwards. 

Ill ^ 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

The Casuist Form Board 

Time. (Table 8 and Graph 13.) Although a 
tendency to scattering is noticeable, the distribu- 
tion, on the whole, is fairly good, and this is 
reflected in the graph showing the medians and 
percentiles. The median drops rapidly down to 
age eleven or twelve, from which point there is prac- 
tically no increase in rapidity in completing the 



Table 8. The Casuist Form Board. Time. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 

7 

17 

10 

11 

11 

13 

16 

15 

13 

5 

4 

3 

1 

1 

1 

16 


9 

2 

13 

10 

14 

13 

7 

7 

11 

7 

5 

5 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

15 


10 

1 

4 

9 

21 

18 

18 

10 

4 

15 

8 

10 

2 

3 

2 

1 

3 

1 

4 


11 

1 

10 

14 

23 

20 

8 

7 

13 

9 

4 

4 

6 

1 
2 

2 
2 


12 

2 
9 
8 
12 
7 
1 
2 
6 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 


13 

1 

2 
2 
7 
7 
6 
3 
3 
6 
3 
2 

1 
1 


14 

1 

1 
9 
9 
3 

2 
3 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 

1 


15 

2 

2 
2 
2 
3 

1 
2 

1 

1 

16 






Time 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 
100 
125 
150 
175 
200 
225 
250 
275 
300 
D. N. C. 




1 


• 
1 


1 

3 

2 

1 

2 

2 
2 

6 


4 

2 

2 
3 
8 

10 
7 
4 
2 
7 
3 
1 
2 

51 


3 
6 

7 

6 

8 

3 

18 

10 

9 

9 

6 

4 

4 

2 

1 

27 


. 




Total 


1 


29 


106 


123 


144 


121 


134 


126 


56 


44 


35 


935 






75% ile 




212 


143 


93 


72 


69 


59 


53 


53 


57 


47 


55 












D. N. C. 


300 


154 


106 


93 


78 


68 


66 


75 


58 


70 








25%ile 




D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


274 


165 


185 


128 


99 


104 


108 


84 


100 




Quartile 








90 


46 


58 


34 


23 


25 


25 


18 


22 





112 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 



Time 
D.N.C 



280 



240 



200 
ISO 



150 



100 



40 



Age 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

Graph 13, — The Casuist Form Board. Time. 



Errors 
D.N.G. 























^ 


\ 




















\\ 




















\ ^ 


k 


















\ 


\ 


















\ 


\ 
















V 


\ 


\ 
















\ 


\ 


\ 


^ 














\ 

\ 


\ 


\ 


,^^' 


\ 
\ 












\ 


] 


s^ 




\ 














\ 
\ 


\ 




\ 














\ 
\ 


\ 


^ 




\^ 







■>s. 








^^^ 


■^ 


•-^^ 








^^Z!] 






^■ 





,__ 










^^ 



















"~-^^ 


,--' 































































\ 


\ 


















I 


\ 


\ 
\ 
\ 
















\ 
\ 


\ 


\ 

\ 
















X 

\ 

\ 
\ 


\ 


\ 
\ 

\ 
















\ 
\ 




N, 




^v^ 


^^ 












\, 


\ 


■--■ 




^v 





-~-.^ 


















■~— — 








' — -«^ 




':^.. 













Age 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

Graph 14. — The Casuist Form Board. Errors. 



113 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Table 9. The Casuist Form Board. Errors. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 




Errors 





































1 




2 


5 


5 


7 


3 


2 


2 


2 




1 








1 


1 


7 


10 


10 


13 


5 


5 


11 


2 




2 








4 


5 


11 


11 


17 


8 


9 


8 


5 


2 




3 








1 


5 


10 


14 


18 


21 


9 


8 


4 






4 








3 


8 


15 


6 


11 


12 


8 


3 


5 


4 




5 






1 


1 


5 


8 


6 


14 


12 


6 


4 








6 








2 


5 


8 


8 


4 


14 


2 


5 


1 


3 




7 








2 


5 


6 


5 


10 


4 


2 


2 








S 








1 


10 


6 


3 


5 


9 


2 


1 


2 






9 








6 


10 


8 


2 


1 


1 


1 










10 






2 


4 


4 


2 


7 


4 


5 


1 


2 








11 








3 


4 


4 


9 


1 


3 












12 








1 


4 


7 


2 


6 


3 


1 




3 






13 








4 


8 


7 




2 


5 












14 








3 


3 


3 


2 


4 




1 


2 


1 






15 






1 


1 


3 


8 


4 


5 


2 


1 










17 






2 


4 


5 


5 


2 


3 


1 


1 




1 






19 












5 


1 


2 




1 










21. 








4 


2 




2 


1 


1 


1 










23 








4 


2 


1 


1 


4 














25 






1 


2 


2 


2 






1 












27 






1 




1 


1 


1 


1 




1 










29 






2 


2 


2 


1 


2 


1 






1 








31 






2 


1 


2 


1 


3 


2 


1 


1 










D. N. C 


1 


16 


51 


27 


16 


15 


4 


3 








1 




Total 


1 


29 


106 


123 


144 


121 


134 


126 


56 


43 


35 


16 


934 






75% ile 




27 


11 


7 


4 


3 


3 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 








Median 




D. N. C. 


30 


12 


8 


7 


5 


5 


4 


3 


3 


4 








25% ile 




D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


30 


15 


15 


12 


8 


7 


6 


6 


6 




Quartile 








U.5 


5.5 


6.0 


4.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


2.5 


2.5 





test. The decrease in the range of variation, as 
indicated by the percentiles, is fairly constant at 
all ages, with the exception of age nine, which 
shows an increase over the preceding age. At all 
ages from four to eleven there are children who are 

114 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

unable to complete the test within the time limit, 
while at age fifteen there is one isolated case. The 
shortest time taken to complete the test lies be- 
tween 20 and 30 seconds. No child below age ten 
completes the test within this shortest time pe- 
riod. 

Errors. (Table 9 and Graph 14.) The de- 
crease of the curve for the median showing the 
number of errors is fairly constant and uniform 
down to age thirteen, and the percentile curves 
follow the same general tendency. The largest 
number of errors made, while completing the test 
within the time limit imposed, is about 30. At 
almost all ages there are cases of children com- 
pleting the test without error. The table of dis- 
tribution shows a fair amount of scattering at all 
ages. 

The Triangle Test 

Time. (Table 10 and Graph 15.) As in the 
previous test the table shows a fair amount of scat- 
tering at all ages. The median decreases constantly 
but rather slowly after age nine. The amount of 
variation as shown by the percentiles tends, on 
the whole, to decrease with increasing age, although 
there are the usual irregularities at the upper ages. 
There are cases of inability to complete the test at 
all ages from four to eleven. The shortest time 
record is less than 10 seconds, made by two twelve- 
year-olds. 

115 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Errors. (Table 11 and Graph 16.) The same 
amount of scattering is shown in the table of 
errors as in the table of time, and the curve for 
the median, on the whole, presents much the same 
appearance as the curve for the median time. The 
greatest number of errors made is about 35 and 
there are isolated cases at many ages completing 
the test without any errors. These cases seem to 

Table 10. The Triangle Test. Time. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Time 






























—10 




















2 












10 








2 


3 


4 


3 


10 


8 


5 


9 


6 


3 






20 








4 


6 


11 


7 


6 


12 


10 


6 


2 








30 








2 


10 


10 


14 


10 


10 


11 


8 


5 


7 


1 




40 








3 


11 


13 


7 


8 


11 


8 


7 


3 


1 


1 




50 








5 


6 


8 


5 


8 


5 


7 


1 


2 


1 






60 








4 


4 


8 


3 


1 


7 


4 


1 










70 






2 


3 


3 


5 


1 


8 


5 


3 


2 


1 


1 






80 








5 


4 




2 


8 


2 


4 


3 


1 








90 








3 


3 




4 


3 


1 


2 












100 






3 


3 


3 




8 


5 


11 


5 


1 


3 


3 






125 








3 


5 




6 


4 


2 


1 


2 


2 








150 








1 


3 




3 


2 


2 


3 


1 










175 






2 


2 






1 




1 




1 










200 






2 


3 


1 




2 






1 












225 






1 




2 






1 


2 


2 












250 






1 




6 




1 






2 




1 








275 






2 


1 


1 






















300 








1 










1 














D. N. C. 


1 


13 


22 


14 


8 


4 


3 


1 














Total 


1 


29 


67 


85 


98 


71 


77 


81 


70 


42 

22 


26 
20 


16 
31 


2 


665 


75%ile 




106 


61 


42 


29 


35 


33 


30 


30 




Median .... 


D. N. C. 


275 


108 


77 


64 


58 


55 


49 


48 


37 


39 


37 


35 




25%ile 




D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


240 


123 


120 


89 


90 


86 


60 


80 


60 






Quartile, . . . 








99.0 


47.0 


42.5 


28.0 


30.0 


28.0 


19.0 


30.0 


14.5 







116 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 



























\, 




\ 
\ 




















\^ 




\ 
\ 






















\ 


\ 

\ 






















\ 


\ 






















\ 




\ 

\ 




















\ 




\ 
\ 




















\ 




\ 




















\ 




\ 




















\ 




\ 

\ 




















\ 




\ 

\ 




















] 








^N^ 
















\ 








\ 






^ 














\ 




""-^, 










^^^ 


^^-'' 


""^^^ 








*^^^ 












-^ 














"^- 

















_^— ■ — 





























5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 15 

Graph 15. — The Triangle Test. Time. 



\ 




\ 






















\ 




\ 

\ 




















\ 






\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 
























\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 

\ 




















\ \ 
\ \ 




\ 


-^.^ 


















\ \ 

\ 

\ 




V 




"""- 




^^\ 












\ 
\ 

\ 




\ 










"^■^ 


"" 




/ 












_.*— ^ — 












~"---,^ 













^ -^, 















Age 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 

Graph 16. — The Triangle 



1 12 13 14 15 16 

Test. Errors. 



117 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Table 11. The Triangle Test. Errors. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Errors 







































1 




1 




1 


1 


1 






3 






1 










3 


4 


2 


2 


2 


5 


4 


2 


1 






2 








2 




5 


1 


4 


10 


3 


4 


3 








3 








2 


11 


7 


9 


8 


6 


6 


3 


2 








4 








5 


2 


7 


8 


6 


6 


5 


7 


3 


1 






5 








4 


2 


11 


4 


5 


5 


6 


5 


2 


3 






6 








5 


8 


7 


4 


5 


2 


5 


2 


2 


1 






7 








2 


6 


5 


2 


3 


8 


5 


3 


3 


3 






8 










4 


5 


5 


9 


4 


7 


1 










9 








4 


2 


6 


4 


8 


4 


5 


3 




1 






10 






2 




4 


1 


1 


4 


1 


4 


1 




1 






11 






2 


3 


3 




3 


1 


4 


2 










--1 


12 








4 


2 


4 


1 


1 


5 




2 










13 








1 


5 


3 


3 


3 


2 


1 












14 






1 




3 


2 


1 


3 


3 


1 


1 










15 








1 






4 


3 


2 


2 












16 








2 




1 


3 




3 


1 


1 










17 








3 




1 


4 


1 


2 


1 


2 




1 






18 






1 


1 


3 


3 






1 














19 






2 


1 


1 


2 


1 


1 


3 


3 












20 






4 


1 


4 


4 


4 


3 


4 


3 


2 




1 






25 






3 


1 


2 


3 


1 


3 




2 


1 










30 








1 


3 


3 


1 




1 


1 












35 








1 


3 


5 


1 




1 


1 












D. N. C. 


1 


13 


22 


14 


8 


4 


3 


1 














Total 


1 


29 


67 


85 


98 


71 


77 


81 


70 


42 


25 


16 


2 


664 


75%ile.... 




18 


6 


6 


5 


4 


4 


4 


4 


3 


3 


1 






Median .... 


D. N. C. 


27 


13 


11 


8 


8 


8 


7 


7 


5 


6 


6 


9 




25%ile.... 




D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


31 


18 


16 


13 


14 


11 


9 


10 


9 






Quartile .... 








12.5 


6.5 


6.0 


4.5 


5.0 


3.5 


3.0 


3.5 


4.0 





be due to the puzzle nature of the test, which 
allows for the entrance of a chance solution every 
now and then. 



118 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

The Diagonal Test 

Time, (Table 12 and Graph 17.) The irregu- 
larity of the curve for the medians and percentiles 
bears out what was obvious to the authors while 
making the tests, i.e., the element of chance enter- 
ing into this test. This is also shown by the scat- 
tering in the table of distribution. The puzzle 

Table 12. The Diagonal Test. Time. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Time 
—10 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 
100 
125 
150 
175 
200 
225 
250 
275 
300 
D. N. C. 




1 


1 

1 

1 
1 

1 

2 
2 
2 
2 
1 
2 

1 

12 


4 
6 
3 
3 
2 
3 
4 
3 

2 
3 
3 
4 

3 

2 

2 

1 

19 


7 
6 
4 
8 
7 
9 
6 
3 
3 
5 
4 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 

15 


11 

14 
11 
3 
3 
2 
6 
3 
4 
4 
4 
2 
3 
3 
5 
3 
2 

14 


13 
10 

8 
5 
1 
3 
3 
4 
2 
3 
3 
3 
2 
2 

1 
2 
6 


1 
12 
13 
11 
9 
5 
3 
3 
4 

4 
4 

1 
1 
3 

1 

2 


15 
9 

7 
8 
4 
1 
4 
1 
4 
5 
7 
2 
4 
2 
2 
1 

•• 
5 


1 
17 
5 
9 
1 
5 
4 
4 
3 
2 
3 
4 
3 
2 
4 

3 


1 


1 
6 
8 
5 

2 
3 

2 

1 

1 

1 
2 


11 

6 

4 
1 
2 
1 

1 


1 
1 
2 
5 
1 
1 
1 

1 

1 
1 

'l 




1 
1 






Total 


1 


29 


67 


85 


97 


71 


77 


81 


70 


42 


27 


16 


2 


665 


75%ile.... 




100 


51 


45 


29 


25 


27 


31 


20 


17 


17 


25 






Median .... 




275 


150 


75 


76 


49 


42 


54 


54 


25 


25 


38 






25%ile.... 




D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


174 


200 


141 


83 


135 


116 


49 


39 


80 






Quartile 








64.5 


85.5 


58.0 


28.0 


52.0 


48.0 


16.0 


11.0 


27.5 







119 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 



Time 
D.N.C, 

300 

280 

260 

240 

220 

200 

180 

150 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

, 
Age 4 





























V 






















\ 




















y 


\ 




















\ 


\ 




















\ 


\ 




















\ 


V 




















\ 


\ 


^^ 


















\ 




' 


\ 
















^ 


^ 




\ 


















\ 






\ 


/ 


^^ 












\ 






\ 

\ 


/ 


^^ 


\ 








\ 


\ 






\ 


/ 












\ 














\ 




/ 

/ 




\ 




^ 





^ 


x 








N '^~^- 


/ 










"■"^ 









^--^ 


\ 




^„^ — " 





























5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1.3 14 15 

Graph 17- — The Diagonal Test. Time. 



Errors 
D.N.G. 



10 





\ 




















\ 
\ 

\ 

\ 


/ 


\ 














\ 


\ 




\ 
\ 

\ 
\ 














\ 






\ 

V 


\ 


/ 
/ 
1 

/ 


\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 








\ 


\ 






\ 


1 

1 
1 




\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 






----^ 


\ 




\ 




/ 




















"^--^^ 




-— " 


— 


\ 




y^ 







5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 

Graph 18. — The Diagonal Test. Errors. 



120 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

Table 13. The Diagonal Test. Errors. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Errors 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
25 
30 
35 
D. N. C . 








1 

2 

2 
1 

2 
1 

1 
1 

2 
1 

1 
1 
1 

2 


2 
5 
1 

4 

2 

1 
2 

2 

5 

4 
3 

1 
1 
3 
1 

1 

3 

2 
1 
1 
1 
2 
19 


4 
4 

3 
6 
3 
5 

7 
2 
5 
5 
2 
3 
4 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
3 
2 
1 
2 
15, 


7 
7 
5 
5 
6 
7 
4 
2 
6 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
2 
1 
2 
4 
1 
1 
3 
6 
4 
3 
14 


9 
7 
7 
5 
1 
4 
5 
3 

3 

2 

3 

1 
3 
1 

1 
2 

3 

2 
1 
2 
6 


4 
8 
10 
2 
6 
5 
5 
6 
6 
3 

4 

1 

4 
3 

1 
3 

3 
1 

2 


3 

7 
7 
7 
5 
3 
3 
2 
1 
4 
2 
1 
3 
3 
2 

1 

2 
4 
1 
4 
6 
2 
3 
5 


6 
10 
5 
5 
5 
2 

4 
3 
4 
3 
1 

1 
3 

2 

2 
5 
4 
1 
1 
3 


6 
5 
4 
5 
3 
7 
4 
2 
1 

2 

1 

1 

1 


6 

7 
3 

2 

3 

2 

1 


2 

o 

2 
2 
3 






■ 




Total 


1 


29 


67 


85 


97 


71 


77 


81 


70 


42 


27 


16 


2 


665 


75% ile. . . . 




8 


7 


5 


4 


2 


2 


3 


2 


2 


1 


1 






Median .... 




23 


14 


9 


9 


6 


6 


9 


7 


4 


2 


5 






25% ile.... 




D. N. C. 


D. N. C. 


22 


27 


17 


11 


20 


15 


6 


6 


9 






Quartile .... 








8.5 


11.5 


7.5 


4.5 


8.5 


6.5 


2.0 


2.5 


4.0 







nature of the test is obvious, although we do not 
believe that the puzzle feature is so great as to 
make the test worthless when used in a group of 
tests. There are cases of inability to complete the 
test at all ages up to twelve. Only 4 cases are able 
to complete the test in less than 10 seconds. 

121 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Errors, (Table 13 and Graph 18.) The table 
and graph for the errors show much the same char- 
acteristics as the table and graph for the time. The 
irregularity of the 25 percentile curve is very- 
marked, and this means a great fluctuation in vari- 
ability from age to age. The greatest number of 
errors made by those completing the test is about 
35. There are cases at all ages of individuals com- 
pleting the test without error. 

Healy Puzzle "A" 

Time. (Table 14 and Graph 19.) The distri- 
bution table shows a considerable amount of scat- 
tering at all ages. At every age, from four to 
twelve inclusive, and also at age fourteen, there 
are children who fail to complete the test within 
the time limit. The shortest time taken is 5 sec- 
onds or less, and there are cases of children who 
complete the test within this short limit of time at 
ages eleven, twelve, thirteen and fifteen. The 
graph of the median shows a fairly constant and 
steady decrease in time up to age thirteen. There 
is, however, a rather large variability, as indi- 
cated by the percentiles, at all ages up to age 
eleven, with the usual variation of the medians 
and percentiles in the upper ages (above age thir- 
teen). 

Our results seem somewhat at variance with 
Healy's norms. He says : "No normal person over 
eight or nine years should fail to do it in 5 min- 

122 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

utes." ^ Referring to our table of distribution, we 
find 20 out of 122 nine-year-olds, 11 out of 117 ten- 
year-olds, and a few eleven-, twelve- and fourteen- 
year-olds who fail to fulfill these conditions. It is 
hardly conceivable that all these individuals are 





Table 14. 


Healy 


Puzzle 


"A." 


Time. 








Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Time 






























5 
















2 


2 


1 




2 








10 








2 


5 


7 


6 


15 


15 


10 


11 


7 


6 


2 






20 




1 




2 


6 


15 


13 


13 


19 


15 


8 


11 


5 








30 








1 


10 


10 


8 


7 


7 


13 


9 


1 


1 


3 






40 






3 


1 


9 


4 


9 


11 


6 


6 


• 7 


2 


4 








50 






1 


2 


6 


3 


8 


6 


10 


7 


4 


2 










60 








1 


5 


5 


6 


7 


5 


8 


5 












70 








1 


2 


5 


7 


4 


8 


6 


3 


3 










80 






1 


1 


1 


10 


7 


7 


4 


4 


2 


5 










90 








4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 




2 


1 


1 








100 








2 


8 


5 


1 


4 


4 






4 










110 












8 


1 


3 


2 






1 


1 








120 










2 


1 


2 


4 




3 




1 


1 








130 








1 




1 


5 


1 


1 


3 














140 






1 


1 


.2 


3 


2 


2 


2 


1 














150 








8 


3 


6 


6 


4 


3 


2 


1 


2 










175 






3 


6 


3 


6 


4 


2 


1 


2 


1 


2 


1 








200 








5 


2 


3 


5 


4 


1 




1 




1 








225 








5 


4 




3 


4 


4 


1 






1 








250 








2 


4 


3 


3 


2 


2 


1 














275 






1 


3 


5 


3 


2 


1 






1 




1 








301 






1 




























D. N. C. 


4 


32 


60 


57 


45 


20 


11 


4 


4 




2 










Total 


5 


43 


108 


138 


147 


122 


117 


105 


88 


56 


44 


25 


7 


1005 


75% lie 




301 + 


175 


58 


53 


52 


32 


25 


27 


23 


26 


19 






Median 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


131 


117 


86 


70 


54 


46 


38 


55 


30 


35 




25%ile 




D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


258 


145 


96 


78 


66 


102 


109 






Quartile 












103.0 


56.5 


35.5 


25.5 


21.5 


38.0 


45.0 







^ Healy, W. : The Individual Delinquent, Little, Brown 
and Company (1915), p. 107. 

123 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 



Time 

D.N.C. 

300 
280 
260 
240 
220 
200 
180 
X60 
140 
120 
100 

80 

60 

40 

20 



Age 5 



























\ 




\ 
















\ 


\ 




\ 
\ 


















\ 




\ 

\ 
















\ 


\ 






\ 














\ 
\ 


\ 






\ 














\ 


\ 






\ 














\ 


\ 






\ 
















\ \ 






\ 
















\ \ 






\ 
















\ 


^ 






\ 














\ 
\ 




s^ 




\ 








_- 






\ 




\ 


^, 


\. 




/^ 








\ 
\ 












"'■---..-'' 
















^■^^ 







^ 


N, 








•^^ 










-v.. 







J] 




^ 




























Graph 19- 



9 10 11 12 1 

-Healy Puzzle "A." 



3 14 15 16 

Time. 



to be classified as abnormal. We do not believe 
in regard to the ten- and eleven-year-olds who fail 
to complete the performance within 5 minutes that 
we are warranted in classifying them as below 
normal. 

The only other norms for time comparable with 
ours are those of Bruckner and King ^ for eight- 
and ten-year-old children. Their median time for 
eight-year-olds is 140 seconds, while ours is 117 
seconds, i.e., considerably shorter. It is interest- 
ing to note that the medians for the ten-year-olds 
differ only by one second, theirs being 69 and ours 
70 seconds. 

^ Bruckner, L., and King, I. : "A Study of the Fernald' 
Form Board/' Psychological Clinic, Vol. ix. No. 9 (1916), 
pp. 249-258. 

124 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

Moves. (Table 15 and Graph 20.) The graph 
and table for the number of moves indicate much 
the same features as have been noted in dealing 
with the time. The greatest number of moves 
taken by any one child completing the test within 
the time limit is about 100. Five moves is the 
fewest number by which the test can be completed. 
This is possible if the child places all the five pieces 

Table 15. Healy Puzzle "A." Moves. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Moves 
5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

D. N. C. 




1 

4 


3 


4 
1 

2 
3 


5 

2 
5 
2 
7 
3 
3 
7 
3 
7 

3 

1 
60 


10 

16 

11 

12 

9 

3 

1 

2 

5 

2 

2 

2 

3 
3 

57 


19 

18 

11 

10 

7 

8 

8 

4 

5 

2 

1 

3 

1 
1 

1 

1 
45 


14 

18 

18 

8 

6 

8 
8 
9 

1 
5 

2 
1 

1 
2 

20 


24 ' 

12 

20 

7 
14 

7 

5 

3 

2 

1 

4 

2 

2 
1 
1 

1 
11 


27 
17 
9 
16 
6 
7 
6 
4 
1 

1 

4 

1 
1 

1 

4 


22 
20 
9 
8 
11 
3 
2 
5 
1 
1 

1 
1 

4 


13 
12 
15 
7 
3 
1 

1 

1 
2 

1 


13 
8 
2 
4 
4 
7 
2 

2 

2 


9 
5 

2 
1 

2 

3 

2 
1 


2 
3 

1 




Total 


5 


40 


108 


138 


145 


121 


117 


105 


88 


56 


44 


25 


7 


999 


75%ile 




D.N.C. 


40 


19 


15 


14 


13 


10 


10 


10 


10 


8 






Median 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


50 


35 


28 


23 


20 


18 


16 


17 


14 


12 




25%ile 




D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


51 


39 


32 


27 


21 


32 


35 






Quartile 












18.5 


13.0 


11.0 


8.5 


5.5 


11.0 


13.5 







125 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 



Moves 

D.N.C. 
60 

























r 


\ 


\ 




\ 
















\ 
\ 

\ 




\ 




















\ 
\ 
\ 


\ 


N, 




\ 






,^— "' 






\ 
\ 

\ 




V, 


^^ 


^^ 




/ 










""-^ 


— 


— 


-^ 




■^^ 


— 




- 

























Age 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

Graph 20. — Healy Puzzle "A." Moves. 

correctly at the first trial. We have a certain dum- 
ber of cases of this nature occurring at every age 
(with the exception of age five) . We feel that this 
is due to the puzzle nature of the test, which allows 
an element of chance to enter into the solu- 
tion. 

Many of the cases completing the test in 5 moves, 
particularly among the younger children, are due 
to pure chance. The child happened to place the 
first few blocks correctly and the rest of the solu- 
tion followed without difficulty. In the solution 
of this test the element of chance seems to enter 
to a greater degree than in the other tests. We 
feel that, used by itself, it is very unreliable and that 
the only justification for its use is in a group of 
mental tests by means of which the chance element, 
if at work, will be modified by the performances on 
the other tests. 

126 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 
The Manikin Test 

Score. (Table 16 and Graph 21.) The table 
shows an excellent distribution with comparatively 
little scattering. A score of is made by some 

Table 16. The Manikin Test. Score. 



Age 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Score 





































4 


8 


7 


8 


1 


1 






















1 






1 


5 


2 




1 




















2 






5 


16 


8 


5 


2 


1 


















3 




1 


2 


20 


20 


5 


3 


3 


4 


2 














4 








10 


49 


59 


55 


21 


4 


3 


5 


3 










5 






1 


9 


35 


50 


66 


49 


17 


15 


13 


5 


5 


1 


1 




Total... 


4 


9 


16 


68 


115 


120 


127 


74 


25 


20 


18 


8 


5 


1 


1 


611 


75% ile. 








2 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 








Median. 








1.5 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 








25% Ue. 











2 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


4 


4 


5 








Quartile 






1.0 


1.0 


1.0 


0.5 


0.5 


0.5 


0.5 





0.5 


0.5 












Score 

































y 








' 




■n 




/ 
































/ 










/ 














/ 
/ 




/ 






/ 
/ 


N 










/ 
/ 


/ 


/ 
/ 
/ 




















/ 


/ 


/ 




















/ / 


/ 

/ 






















/ / 


/ 






















/ / 


• 




















- 


/ / 






















1 

1/ 


/ / 
/ 

/ 






















// 


/ 






















1/ 


/ 






















1/ 


/ 






















?__ 


1 












1 







Age 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 

Graph 21. — The Manikin Test. Score. 
127 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

cases at all ages from two to seven. The high- 
est score is made by only one case at age four, 
and from then upwards by an increasing percentage 
of the cases at the other ages. The curve for the 
medians shows a very decided rise from age three 
up to age eight, where it reaches the maximum 
score, at which place it remains for all the other 
ages. The quartile is never greater than 1.0. The 

Table 17. The Feature Profile Test. Time. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Time 

10 

20 

30 

40 

SO 

61 

70 

80 

90 
100 
121 
135 
150 
165 
181 
200 
225 
241 
275 
D. N. C. 






4 


1 

5 




2 
1 
1 


2 
2 
2 
2 
5 
2 
1 
1 
1 
2 
4 
51 


1 

2 
2 
2 

1 

1 

3 
2 
2 
2 
3 
4 
1 
55 


5 

2 
2 
2 
3 
1 
5 
4 
4 
3 
3 
5 
5 
4 
8 
4 
35 


3 
3 
2 
11 
3 

8 
6 
5 
7 
2 
5 
6 
5 
1 
2 
17 


2 
2 
5 
1 
6 

3 
6 

7 
3 
3 
3 
2 
5 
2 
3 
2 
25 


2 
4 
2 
2 
6 
1 
1 
6 
6 
4 
4 
3 
1 
2 
1 
4 
3 
16 


4 
3 
3 
5 

2 
3 
2 
7 
5 
4 
4 
3 
2 
4 
1 
2 
3 
8 


1 

2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
9 
1 

2 

1 
3 

2 
9 


1 

1 
3 
1 
3 

1 
1 

1 

2 
2 
1 

1 

2 






Total 






46 


59 


77 


81 


95 


86 


82 


68 


65 


34 


20 


713 


75% ile... 






D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


241 


239 


134 


99 


99 


90 


75 


104 


68 




Median . . . 






D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


240 


157 


170 


150 


132 


150 


110 




25% ile... 






D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


237 


300"^ 


299 


212 


300"^ 


190 




Quartile . . 
















69 


100"^ 


104 


68 


98^ 


61 





128 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 



Time 

D.N.C. 

300 
280 
260 
240 
220 
200 
180 
160 
140 
120 
100 

80 

60 

40 

20 


Age 6 





























\ 


\ 

\ 














\ 
\ 




\ 


\ 
\ 


/ 




\ 


_/^~l 




\ 
\ 




\ 


\ 


/ 

/ 






/ 
1 


\ 




\ 




\ 




/ 

/ 




\ 


1 
1 


\ 
\ 










V 








1 


\ 








\ 


\ 






\! 


\ 








\ 


\ 


















\ 


\ 


^^ 


>^ 














\ 
\ 






■^ 


^^^ 


^ 


v 








^ 


""s 






^^ 


-^ 


\ 










N 
N 








.. ^ 














"~~-- 


^~- 


y 


\, 
















^^ 


r 


\ 





























































9 10 11 12 13 14 15 15 



Graph 22. — The Feature Profile Test. Time. 

test as used with the method of scoring adopted 
seems to be an excellent one for differentiating 
abilities below age eight. 



The Feature Profile Test 

Time. (Table 17 and Graph 22.) The distri- 
bution table indicates the fairly wide range in time 
taken to solve this test. The shortest time taken 
to complete the test is made by a nine-year-old 
child, who took between 20 and 30 seconds. There 
are cases at all ages of inability to complete the 
test within the time limit. The curve for the 
medians shows a rather irregular decrease after age 
eleven, although the general tendency is downward 
up to age sixteen. The variation of the middle 50 

129 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

per cent is rather large and varies considerably in 
amount for the ages tested. Knox * places this 
test in his thirteen-year-old group with a time limit 
of 10 minutes. We found, in our cases, that about 
80 per cent of the twelve-year-olds, about 90 per 



Table 18. The Ship Test. Score. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Score 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
U 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 




1 


18 
1 

1 

2 


8 

2 
1 

2 
1 

2 
1 
1 

3 
2 

1 
5 
5 
7 
6 
7 
5 

8 


6 
1 

2 
1 
3 
1 

5 
1 

4 
1 
2 
8 
4 
7 
8 
6 

10 
3 

10 


7 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 

1 

2 
2 

1 
3 
10 
11 
11 
20 
5 
19 


1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

5 

8 

9 

13 

13 

17 


1 

2 
1 
1 
3 
1 

9 

9 

13 

9 

28 


1 

4 
5 
10 
13 
11 
37 


1 
1 

1 

3 
2 
8 
8 
9 
37 


3 
6 
4 
4 
25 


3 
5 
7 
3 
8 


1 
3 
3 

2 
7 


2 




Total 


1 


29 


67 


85 


98 


72 


77 


81 


70 


42 


27 


16 


2 


667 


75%ile 




10 


17 


18 


18 


19 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 






Median 







15 


15 


17 


18 


18 


19 


20 


20 


18 


19 






25%ile 







8 


9 


15 


16 


17 


18 


18 


18 


17 


18 






Quartile 




5.0 


4.5 


4.5 


1.5 


1.5 


1.5 


1.0 


1.0 


1.0 


1.5 


1.0 







*Knox, H. A.: "A Scale, Based on the Work at Ellis 
Island, for Estimating Mental Defect," Journal of the Amer- 
ican Medical Association, Vol. Ixii (March 1 , 1914). 

130 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 



Score 
20 




































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^.^^ 








.\ 












'"'^^^ 




--^^^ 






-^ \ 


.-^^ 






















--'' 


/ 


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^^- 


-'' 






"■^•^ 


-''' 




15 




/ 

/ 




/ 


^^^ 


















/ 

/ 1 




1 






















/ / 




1 






















/ / 




1 


















10 




/ / 
/ / 




1 
1 




















/ 




1 
























.-"' 
























/ / 
/ / 






















5 




/ / 
/ / 
























// 


























// 


























// 


















































Age 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

Graph 23.— The Ship Test. Score. 

cent of the thirteen-year-olds and about 95 per cent 
of the fourteen-year-olds finish the test within 5 
minutes. This would make it a very easy thirteen- 
year-old test without taking into consideration the 
fact that Knox allows a time limit of 10 minutes. 



The Ship Test 

Score. (Table 18 and Graph 23.) The dis- 
tribution here is fairly good, inasmuch as the scat- 
tering is not very great. A score of is made 
by some cases at ages four, five, six, seven and 
eight. The highest score, denoting a perfect solu- 
tion of the test, is made by some cases at each age 
from six to fourteen inclusive. The median shows 
a constant increase in ability to perform the test 

131 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

from age five up to age twelve. The variability at 
most ages is not very great and the quartile dimin- 
ishes markedly in the upper ages. The test seems 
to discriminate well at all ages from five to eleven. 



The Picture Completion Test 

Score. (Graph 24.) For the table of distribu- 
tion and an extended discussion of it see Pintner 
and Anderson.^ 



Score 
600 

560 

520 












































































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' — ' 








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/ 


















/ 






















/ 


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/ 





















Ages 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

Graph 24. — The Picture Completion Test. Score. 

The curve for the medians shows a steady and 
gradual increase up to age fifteen. It is interesting 
to note the slight drop from age fifteen to the 
adults. The amount of variability in score made by 

^Pintner, R., and Anderson, M. M.: The Picture Com- 
pletion Test. Educational Psychology Monographs, Warwick 
and York, Baltimore. 

132 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

the middle 50 per cent is remarkably constant at all 
ages. 

The Substitution Test 

Score. (Table 19 and Graph 25.) This distri- 
bution is exceptionally good. There is very little 

Table 19. The Substitution Test. Score. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Score 

60 

70 

80 

90 
100 
110 
120 
130 
140 
150 
160 
170 
180 
190 
200 
210 
220 
230 
240 
250 
300 
400 
500 
600 
D. N. C. 




1 


1 
1 


4 

3 

1 
1 



1 

1 


2 
3 
2 
1 
1 
4 
2 
4 
3 
1 
2 
8 
5 
2 
6 
1 


1 

2 

8 
5 
11 
9 
6 
2 
6 
2 
4 
4 
3 
9 
5 
2 
4 
2 


2 
4 
5 
7 
6 
11 
16 
8 
5 
5 
7 
4 
4 
4 
3 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 

1 


1 
2 
5 
5 

13 
9 
6 

11 
5 
3 
4 
3 
2 
3 


1 
5 
9 

10 
9 

13 
8 
9 
3 
4 
1 
2 
2 

1 


1 

7 

4 

18 

14 

13 

10 

2 

4 

4 

2 

1 


1 

7 

7 

12 

12 

14 

5 

4 

3 


1 
6 
6 
12 
6 
3 
2 
3 
1 

1 
1 


1 
2 
5 
6 
2 
5 
1 
1 
3 

1 


1 

4 

4 

1 
1 
4 
1 


1 
1 




Total 


1 


29 


67 


85 


98 


72 


77 


80 


70 


42 


27 


16 


2 


666 






75%ile 




500 


224 


165 


140 


123 


105 


94 


91 


85 


88 


77 






Median 




600 


290 


180 


158 


141 


123 


107 


106 


96 


99 


97 






25%ile 




D.N.C. 


385 


249 


195 


164 


143 


123 


119 


110 


119 


123 






Quartile 






80.5 


42.0 


27.5 


20.5 


19.0 


14.5 


14.0 


12.5 


15.5 


23.0 







133 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 



Score 

D.N.C. 

600 

500 
400 
390 
360 
330 
300 
270 
240 
210 

:so 

ISO 
120 
90 
60 
30 



























■'^'^^ 


\ 
























\ \ 
























'\\ 
























A N 
























\ \ 


\ 






















\ \ 


\ 






















\ \ 


\ 
\ 






















\ 


\ 






















\ 


\ \ 
























\ \ 
























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'^ 


^^ 




















\ 


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^ '^- 


■^.^^ 






















--JlT;; 


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-"T^ 




■ 


















































































Age 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

Graph 25. — The Substitution Test. Score. 

scattering. The lowest score, between 60 and 70* 
is made by one case at each of the ages from eleven 
to fifteen inclusive. Inability to do the test is 
shown only at ages four, five and six, with an iso- 
lated case at age eight. The graph for the medians 
shows a particularly constant and steady decrease 
from age five to age eleven or twelve, from which 
point onwards it remains more or less stationary. 
The small amount of variation at all ages, as indi- 
cated by the percentiles, is a noticeable feature of 
this test, and reflects the compact distribution as 
shown in the table. 



134 



^^^ 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

The Adaptation Board 

Score. (Table 20 and Graph 26.) The table 
shows a fairly good distribution, indicating increas- 
ing ability to perform the test with increasing age. 

Table 20. The Adaptation Board. 



Age 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 




Number Correct 

































3 




1 


2 






















1 


8 


19 


12 


9 


4 


2 


1 
















2 


2 


16 


20 


13 


10 


2 


3 
















3 


2 


5 


23 


20 


22 


16 


8 


3 


2 


1 


2 








4 




7 


25 


40 


35 


41 


15 


13 


8 


4 


10 


2 


1 




5 




4 


35 


48 


84 


66 


49 


48 


49 


42 


30 


19 


12 




Total 


15 


51 


116 


132 


155 


127 


76 


64 


59 


47 


42 


21 


13 


918 






75%ile 


2 


3 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 










1 


2 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 








25% ile 


1 


1 


2 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


4 


5 


5 








Quartile 


0.5 


1.0 


1.5 


1.0 


0.5 


0.5 


0.5 


0.5 








0.5 











Moves 





























/ 

/ 




7 






' 




— ■ 


^ 


y 









/ 












\ 








/ 




/ 




J 




/ 




'\ 


/ 






/^ 




/ 




































































/ / 




/ 










































/ 


/ 














































/ 


/ 


/ 






















/ 
























































































































/■ 















































Age 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

Graph 26. — The Adaptation Board. Number of moves correct. 

135 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Only a very few of the four-, six- and seven-year- 
olds are unable to do any part of it. Cases of com- 
plete performance begin at age five and the number 
increases steadily in the upper ages. The curve 
for the medians shows a constant rise up to age 
eight, where it reaches the maximum score. It 
remains at this maximum score for all succeeding 
ages. The amount of variability is naturally small, 
since we are dealing with a small amount of pos- 
sible variation. 

The Cube Test 

Score. (Table 21 and Graph 27.) The table; 
shows a good distribution with relatively little scat- 
tering. A score of is made by a few cases at 
ages three to six inclusive. The highest possible 
score of 12 is made by only one individual, a six- 
teen-year-old. The curve for the medians shows a 
constant increase up to age fourteen, from which 
point onwards we have a drop at age fifteen and 
again with adults. It is interesting to note that 
the adults make the same score as fourteen- and 
sixteen-year-old children. The amount of variation 
of the middle 50 per cent is fairly small and fairly 
constant at all ages. 

These tables of distribution and graphs will form 
the basis for the various methods in which our data 
have been used for the purpose of constructing 
the different types of scales to be discussed in the 

136 



THE PRESENTATION OF THE DATA 

Table 21. The Cube Test. 



Age 


3 


■i 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 




Number Correct 









































4 


1 


6 


1 






























1 


5 


9 


13 


4 




2 






1 




















2 




2 


12 


2 


3 


1 


1 


1 


2 


1 


2 


1 














3 




2 


11 


9 


7 


4 


6 


3 


1 


3 


1 




4 












4 






9 


15 


7 


3 


7 


7 


8 


7 


3 




1 








1 




5 






7 


7 


18 


15 


15 


14 


10 


10 


8 


9 


12 


2 






2 




6 






3 


6 


10 


19 


16 


23 


17 


19 


16 


15 


10 


4 






4 




7 








4 


4 


7 


14 


23 


23 


27 


19 


17 


13 


8 


1 


2 


6 




8 








1 


6 


3 


8 


13 


18 


19 


14 


25 


8 


7 


1 




10 




9 












3 


2 


7 


5 


13 


8 


15 


6 


7 


3 




5 




10 










1 




1 


4 


8 


2 


5 


7 


7 


3 


2 


2 


8 




11 


















1 




1 


5 


1 


1 




1 


3 




12 




























1 










Total 


9 


14 


61 


49 


56 


57 


70 


95 


94 


101 


77 


94 


62 


33 


7 


5 


39 


993 






75%ile 






4 


5 


6 


6 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


9 


8 


9 






9 






1 


1 


2 


4 


5 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


8 


7 


8 


9 


10 


8 

7 








25%ile 






1 


3 


4 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


6 


5 


7 








Quartile 






1.5 


1.0 


1.0 


0.5 


1.0 


1.0 


1.0 


1.0 


1.0 


1.5 


1.5 


1.0 






1.0 





Number 

Correct 

12 

11 

10 

9 































































































/ 


\ 






















/ 


s 

N 


/' 


/ 




\ 
















/ 






/ 


n; 


/ 






















/ 










1 














/ 


/ 






/ 








\ 


1 
1 












/ 


/ 


/ 






























/ 






























/I 






























/ 


1 




























^ 

































Age 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 15 17 18Ad. 

Graph 27. — The Cube Test. Number of lines correct. 

137 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

chapters that follow. We have thought it wise to 
present the data in this shape, first of all, so that 
a rough idea of the reliability of the tests could be 
obtained and also so that later on other results 
might be added to those given in our tables of dis- 
tribution. The addition of more cases would serve 
to increase the reliability of the norms. 



CHAPTER V 

THE YEAR SCALE 

The first type of scale that we have tentatively 
constructed on the basis of the results collected has 
been of the type made familiar by the Binet Scale. 
A year scale is a scale in which the tests are grouped 
according to years, with the presupposition that 
the average child of a particular age will pass all 
the tests of the year scale at the age in question 
and all below that year and none above that year. 
This is, of course, the ideal; and what we actu- 
ally find is that a particular child passes tests scat- 
tered over several years. An addition of these tests 
leads to the computation of a mental age. 

In the chapter on standardization we have dis- 
cussed the various methods in common use in order 
to determine the placing of a test at a particular 
year. In general, the choice lies between the adop- 
tion of the 75 per cent standard or of a standard 
which fluctuates between 60 and 90 per cent, ac- 
cording to the type of curve exhibited by the results 
of the test. The advantages of these different 
methods have been discussed sufficiently. In the 
year scale here presented the 75 per cent standard 
is adopted. This method is chosen owing to 

139 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

the nature of the data with which we are dealing. 
Most of our tests are not amenable to the "all or 
none" credit method that has been customary up to 
the present time in year scales. We cannot say 
that a child passes or does not pass a particular 
test if we adhere to the method of evaluating the 
performance which we have adopted. The pass or 
fail method would have limited each tc^it to use at 
one particular age only. In this case we should 
have had to set a definite time limit to each test 
and credited with a pass all who completed the test 
within that time limit. The age where the curve 
showed the most decided rise above the 60 per cent 
point would have been the age at which to place 
the test. This method of procedure would have 
greatly diminished the scope of each test and would 
have left us with relatively few tests, hardly ade- 
quate to form a scale. 

We have, therefore, adopted the 75 per cent J 
standard and taken the time or score made by the 
lowest of the upper 75 per cent at each age as being 
the time or score which a child must make in order 
to be credited with a pass at any particular age. 
This allows us to use most of our tests for a great 
many ages. The actual procedure has been to take 
the 25 percentile point at each age as being the 
lowest time or score or number of moves or errors 
made by the upper 75 per cent and use this as the 
limiting point for crediting a pass at a specific age. 
The other limiting point is set by the 25 percentile 
of the age below. For example, the 25 percentile 

140 



THE YEAR SCALE 

at age seven is 31 and the 25 percentile at age eight 
is 18. This means that at age seven the upper 75 
per cent make scores better than 31, therefore 30 
is taken as the one limit and this limit extends down 
to the limit for age eight, which is IT. All those 
who make scores between 30 and 18 are given a 
seven-year-old credit, since 75 per cent of the seven- 
year-olds make scores better than 31; if, however, 
they make scores better than 18 they are given an 
eight-year-old credit because they fall within the 
eight -year-old group. This method seemed the only 
one possible in dealing with data such as we have 
in our tests. On the basis of this scheme Table 22 
has been constructed. The limiting points for time 
or score or number of moves or errors are given 
for each test for each age. The table is to be read 
as follows: In the Mare and Foal Test any indi- 
vidual making a time record lying between 160 and 
92 seconds inclusive is to be credited with a pass 
at age five, and any individual making a time record 
between 91 and 77 seconds inclusive is to be cred- 
ited with a pass at ages five and six ; any individual 
completing the test within from 76 to 59 seconds 
is to be credited with a pass for all ages from five 
to seven, and so on for the other ages until we get 
to time records of 32 or less, for which record an 
individual is to be credited with a pass for ages five 
to eleven inclusive and also for age thirteen. The 
second line giving the number of errors is to be 
interpreted as follows: for more errors than 11 
credit at no age is given, for errors extending from 

141 



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142 



THE YEAR SCALE 

11 to 5 a pass for age five is allowed, for 4 or 3 
errors a pass at ages five and six is given, for 2 or 
less errors a pass at ages five, six and twelve is 
allowed. 

We have by this method established a system of 
age credits or passes whereby a specific record gives 
credit for a certain number of ages, which have 
been determined by the limits as set by the points 
at which 75 per cent pass at each age. It is to be 
noted that by this method failure to pass a test 
cannot be credited at all, although we may know 
that failure to pass the test is the median or even 
25 percentile performance of the group. It would, 
however, be impossible to give any specific age 
credit for a failure, since we do not know whether 
the failure in question is a two-, three- or four-year- 
old type of failure. 

Table 22 is, therefore, the table to which the 
worker must constantly refer for evaluation of the 
results after giving the tests. It will be seen at 
a glance that the number of tests at each age, or 
rather that the number of age credits for tests, is 
different for different ages. In two ways, there- 
fore, our year scale differs radically from the year 
scale of the Binet type. In the first place, our tests 
are not given as tests specially adapted to one or 
at most two or three years, as is the case with the 
Binet tests. In the second place, the number of 
tests at each age varies. The Binet and modifica- 
tions of the Binet have generally adhered to a con- 
stant number of tests at each age. We have disre- 

143 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

garded this altogether, allowing the tests them- 
selves to determine the number of different years 
for which they are adapted and thus setting the 
number that may fall to each age. The following 
number of tests or performances to be allotted age 
credit have resulted for each age: 



At age 4 — 3 


At age 10—15 


" " 5 8 


" " 11—14 


" " 6—18 


" " 12— 9 


" " 7—17 


" " 13 14 


" " 8—17 


" " 14 6 


" " 9—14 


" " 15— 3 



This method, adopted for evaluating the results 
and for arriving at a mental age, is the one pro- 
posed by Terman and Childs ^ in their first proposal 
for a revision of the Binet Scale, namely, that of 
giving a different test value or index to each of a 
group of tests according to the number of tests in 
the group. The Binet Scale allows 1/5 of a year 
credit for each additional test passed beyond the 
basal year, because there are 5 tests in each age 
group. The logical step taken by Terman and 
Childs was to allow that fraction of a year as credit 
which corresponded to the number of tests within 
a group, since some of their groups of tests con- 
tained more than the original 5 tests of Binet. If 

1 Terman, L. M., and Childs, H. G.: "A Tentative Revi- 
sion and Extension of the Binet-Simon Measuring Scale of 
Intelligence," Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. iii 
(1912). 

144 



THE YEAR SCALE 

there were 6 tests in a group, 1/6 of a year was 
allowed for each test, and so on. We have adopted 
this same method in allotting credit to the differing 
numbers of tests in our year groups. The values 
obtained by dividing the year's credit into frac- 
tions, according to the number of tests in each age 
group, we have called "test values." These "test 
values" are constant as long as we use all the tests 
in the scale. If, however, we are obliged, for any 
reason, to omit any of the tests, we may nevertheless 
arrive at a mental age by computing new test val- 
ues for each year corresponding to the new group- 
ing of tests that has resulted from the omission of 
some of the tests. 

The procedure in computing mental age is the 
same as with the Binet Scale. After the tests have 
been evaluated, the basal age is determined, that is, 
the age at which all the tests are passed. To this 
basal age are added the extra number of years and 
fractions thereof that have been obtained by addi- 
tional tests passed above the basal year. In actual 
procedure we multiply the number of tests passed 
at each year by the test value for the year, take the 
sum of these test values and add this to the basal 
year. 

This procedure will be made clear from an ex- 
planation of the test blank used and a description 
of a sample case. A copy of the test blank is 
shown on Figure 11. The fifteen tests are num- 
bered and designated by name at the left of the 
blank. Next follows the record of the test. The 

145 



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Hi 



THE YEAR SCALE 

records actually used for diagnostic purposes are 
all found in the vertical column directly under the 
heading "Record." In many tests, however, space 
is provided for time records, etc., that are not di- 
rectly used for diagnosis, and in others space is 
provided for scoring the tests, as in Tests 14 and 15. 
The next three columns, headed "Median Mental 
Age," "Percentile," and "Points," are for these 
three methods of evaluating the tests and they will 
be discussed in the succeeding chapters. The part 
of the blank to the right under the heading "Year 
Scale" is what concerns us here. The first hori- 
zontal line shows the ages from four to fifteen. 
The next line gives the test values computed as we 
have described above. The other figures below this 
show at what ages passes are allowed for each test. 
For example, taking the first horizontal line show- 
ing the passes allowed for the Mare and Foal Test 
( Time ) , we note that age credit is allowed at ages 
five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven and thirteen. 
And so on for the other tests. Again, reading ver- 
tically down the columns, we note that there are 
three tests at age four, i.e.. Tests 9, 14, and 15, and 
each has a test value of .33. To obtain a mental age 
of four on the scale, a subject must pass all of these 
four-year-old tests. At age five there are 8 tests 
which give five-year-old credit, each having a test 
value of .12, and so on with the other ages. The 
horizontal line at the bottom of these age credits, 
called "Number of Tests," allows a space for noting 
the number of tests passed at each age. Below this, 

147 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

marked "Test Values," is a line for the total amount 
of credit arrived at for each age group of tests. 

Figure 12 shows a record blank filled out for year 
scale purposes. The actual calculation of a mental 
age can be described more accurately by reference 
to this. The boy completes the Mare and Foal 
Test in 62 seconds. By reference to Table 22 we 
find that this gives him credit up to age seven. We, 
therefore, mark this on the record sheet by putting 
circles (or any other mark) around all the ages for 
which credit is allowed on this test up to and in- 
cluding age seven, i.e., ages five, six and seven. 
Two errors were made and this is equivalent to a 
twelve-year performance. We, therefore, mark all 
ages for which credit is given up to and including 
age twelve. In this case there are only three ages, 
namely five, six and twelve. From this sample 
the procedure with the other tests will be clear. 
It is necessary, to mark all ages below the age at 
which credit is gained, so that when we come to 
checking up the vertical columns we can see at a 
glance whether all the tests at a specific age have 
been passed or not. After all the tests have been 
evaluated, we proceed to the checking up of the 
year scale. At ages four, five, six and seven all the 
numbers on the vertical columns are inclosed by 
circles, which means that all the tests have been 
passed. We, therefore, make a check mark below 
these ages. Age seven is the last age at which all 
tests have been passed; it is the so-called basal age 
and we note this below by writing the digit 7. At 

148 



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149 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

age eight 16 tests have been passed and, since this 
is not a complete age group, we write this number 
in the column for age eight. Similarly at age nine 
we count 12 tests, at age ten we have 10 tests, at 
age eleven we have 7 tests, at age twelve 4, at age 
thirteen 8, at age fourteen 2. The number of tests 
at each age is now multiplied by the test value at 
the top of the sheet and the result is noted on the 
horizontal line marked "Test Values." Thus, the 
16 tests at age eight are multiplied by the test value 
.06, which gives .96. The 12 tests at age nine 
are multiplied by .09, which gives .84, and so on 
for the other ages. The sum of these test values 
equals 4.19. This is added to the basal age of seven 
and gives as a final result the mental age of 11.19. 

From this sample the computation of mental age 
on the year scale will be obvious. The procedure 
is somewhat more complex than is the case with the' 
ordinary year scales. This complexity is due to the 
fact that we have made use of our tests for many 
ages according to the quality of the performance, 
and have thereby abandoned the "plus or minus" 
method of utilizing a test, which limits the test to 
use at one or two ages only. 

The question of diagnosis based on the mental 
age arrived at by the year scale is, of course, unan- 
swerable at this time, and must wait for an adequate 
answer until sufficient cases have been tested with 
the scale. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE MEDIAN MENTAL AGE 

The method used in the Binet Scale for the de- 
termination of mental age has been so widely used 
and has become so much a matter of habit in clini- 
cal psychology that very little has been done, with 
the exception of the Point Scale Method, in the way 
of discussion as to other possible methods of arriv- 
ing at a mental diagnosis. It has occurred to us 
that the median mental age of a group of tests 
might very well serve as a reliable value for the 
estimation of an individual's mentality. We offer 
this suggestion as a method that must be worked 
out and tested. We are, unfortunately, unable to 
use our data to test adequately the reliability of this 
method, but we hope to do so in the future. 

The method is briefly as follows : Given a group 
of tests which have been adequately standardized 
and for which the median performance at each age 
is available, then the measure of an individual's 
intelligence is the median of all the mental ages 
which he approximates in all the tests. 

To make our data available for this method, we 
have constructed Table 23. This has been ar- 
ranged from the tables of medians given for each 

151 






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152 



THE MEDIAN MENTAL AGE 

test in Chapter IV. Since we are dealing, in most 
cases, with large values, the median value for each 
age is obtained by finding the middle points be- 
tween each age and by using the interval between 
these middle points as the median interval. These 
median intervals are shown in the table. For ex- 
ample, in the Mare and Foal Test, Time, the me- 
dian time for the six-year-olds is 71 seconds (see 
Table 1, p. 100). A point midway between this 
median and the median for the five-year-olds, which 
is 107 seconds, is about 88 seconds and, therefore, 
88 is the upper limit of the median interval for age 
six. Similarly the median for the seven-year-olds 
is 62, and a point midway between 62 and 71 is 
about 67, and, therefore, 67 is the lower limit for 
the six-year-olds and 66 the upper limit for the 
seven-year-olds. 

In Table 23 the top line gives the mental age. 
The next line of the table is to be read as follows: 
In the Mare and Foal Test all time records be- 
tween 150 and 89 are to be given five-year-old 
credit, all records between 88 and 67 are to be given 
six-year-old credit, and so on to age sixteen, where 
all records below 26 are to be given sixteen-year-old 
credit. 

A difficulty of this method appears in the second 
line. Here the median number of errors made by 
eight-, nine-, ten- and eleven-year-olds is the same, 
namely 2. The question then is, If a child makes 
a score of 2, which is the median for eight-, nine-, 
ten- and eleven-year-olds, what mental age are we 

153 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

to credit him with? The only answer to this ques- 
tion that we are able to give at present is to credit 
the child with the median of the mental ages which 
have the same median scores. Thus, in the Mare 
and Foal Test, Errors, we would give a mental age 
of 9.5 for a performance with only two errors, and 
similarly a mental age of 13.5 for a performance 
with one error. This same difficulty is encoimtered 
in other tests, as, for example, in the Five Figure 
Board, Errors, where a score of 3 is the median for 
ages eleven to fourteen, and where we would give 
by this method a mental age of 12.5. This same 
thing also occurs in the Two Figure Board, Moves; 
in the Ship Test, and rather markedly in the Cube 
Test. In short, this difficulty will tend to occur 
in all tests where the method of scoring is not fine 
enough to allow for slight differences in the per- 
formance of a test and, therefore, does not discrimi- 
nate between the medians of two or three contiguous 
years. 

Whether this difficulty will turn out to be a real 
one in the actual use of the method is yet to 
be determined. It may be that by some slight modi- 
fication of the scoring of a test we shall be able to 
overcome it in part. It may also be that by the 
use of many tests, and the use of the median of 
the mental ages on all the tests, no real difficulty 
will be present. 

The advantage of this method appears to us to 
lie in its direct comparison of a performance with 
the median performance of the different ages. 

154 



THE MEDIAN MENTAL AGE 

Again, if for any reason a test must be omitted, no 
change is required in computing mental age, for we 
only have to take the median of the tests used. New ' 
tests may be added as fast as they are standardized 
and old ones discarded if they are found unsuitable. 
Furthermore, an inspection of the array of median 
mental ages will give a kind of mental profile of 
the individual. We are able to see at a glance what 
mental age he approximates in the so-called differ- 
ent mental processes being measured by the tests. 

Unfortunately, as we have stated before, we were 
not able to test all the individuals on all the tests, 
so that we are unable to find the median mental ages 
on this series of tests for each individual and see 
what kind of a distribution would result for each 
chronological age. We have done this, however, 
for a group of tests for one age. There were 77 
ten-year-old children who had all been tested on 
nine identical tests. Making use of both time and 
errors on some tests, we have 16 separate values 
for each child. These values are turned into the 
equivalent median mental age by the use of Table 
23. These median mental ages for each test for 
each of the 77 children are shown in Table 24. The 
first sixteen columns of the table show, these sepa- 
rate mental ages for each of the tests. The last 
column shows the median mental age of the child. 
The table is to be read as follows: Case No. 1 
makes a performance on the Mare and Foal Test 
which is equal to a median twelve-year-old per- 
formance, and the number of errors on this test is 

155 



Table 24. 



Mental Ages on Tests. 
Children. 



Ten Year Old 





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35 


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38 


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40 


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12 


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15 


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7 


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42 


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12 


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11 


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15 


15 


15 


14 


44 


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8 


9 


5 


5 


14 


15 


12 


12 


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11 


13 


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7 


7 


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45 


12 


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7 


6 


14 


16 


7 


6 


5 


5 


11 


14 


11 


11 


10 


9 


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9 


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9 


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12 


10 


n 


13 5 


15 


15 


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47 


8 


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12 


12.5 


12 


9 


7 


9 5 


7 


8 


9.5 


13 


12 


15 


15 


15 


12 


48 


16 


13.5 


9 


15 


14 


16 


7 


7 


14 


14 


12 


11 


15 


15 


15 


15 


14 


49 


9 


9.5 


8 


7 


7 


6 


14 


15 


9 


7 


12 


14 


12 


15 


13 


13 


10 


50 


13 


13.5 


11 


10 


6 


5 


11 


8 


7 


6 


11 


10 


15 


13.5 


13 


14 


11 


51 


9 


13,5 


7 


7 


7 


7 


13 


14 


9 


6 


8 


11 


11 


9 


7 


-7 


8.5 


52 


7 


13.5 


7 


7 


7 


7 


7 


8 


14 


14 


11 


10 


15 


13.5 


10 


11 


10 


53 


12 


9.5 


14 


15 


13 


12.5 


12 


9.5 


11 


9 


7 


10 


14 


13.5 


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-7 


H 5 


54 


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16 


12 


15 


7 


6 


14 


15 


6 


6 


12 


10 


8 


7 


10 


10 


10 


55 


8 


16 


6 


6 


9 


9 


8 


13 


8 


9 


11 


14 


7 


9 


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-7 


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56 


8 


16 


12 


15 


12 


9 


7 


15 


14 


14 


11 


13 


14 


15 


12 


15 


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57 


14 


16 


12 


10 


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-5 


14 


15 


7 


7 


6 


8 


11 


9 


15 


15 


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58 


16 


13 5 


12 


9 


13 


16 


7 


6 


5 


5 


12 


12 


6 


6 


13 


13 


12 


59 


15 


16 


11 


10 


14 


16 


6 


5 


14 


14 


9.5 


10 


12 


12 


15 


15 


12 5 


60 


11 


13.5 


8 


9 


11 


12.5 


7 


7 


•? 


5 


9 5 


10 


13 


13.5 


15 


15 


10 5 


61 


12 


16 


12 


10 


14 


16 


6 


6 


7 


6 


12 


12 


11 


7 


12 


12 


12 


62 


9 


6 


8 


10 


13 


10 


6 


8 


7 


8 


7 


13 


-6 


-6 


7 


8 


8 


63 


13 


16 


8 


15 


8 


8 


10 


13 


13 


14 


12 


9 


11 


15 


15 


15 


13 


64 


7 


7 


7 


7 


11 


10 


12 


8 


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-5 


7 


10 


11 


15 


15 


15 


8 5 


65 


13 


9.5 


8 


7 


10 


9 


7 


8 


14 


14 


12 


11 


8 


7 


7 


7 


8 5 


66 


10 


16 


10 


12.5 


10 


8 


6 


6 


13 


14 


12 


9 


7 


11 


15 


15 


10 5 


67 


10 


9.5 


9 


10 


13 


12.5 


6 


6 


6 


5 


11 


9 


15 


15 


15 


15 


10 


68 


9 


16 


7 


10 


12 


12.5 


10 


15 


10 


11 


12 


9 


15 


15 


8 


9 


10 5 


69 


10 


16 


8 


9 


9 


8 


12 


15 


14 


14 


12 


9 


11 


8 


15 


15 


11 5 


70 


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7 


9 


7 


8 


6 


13 


13 


12 


10 


12 


9 


10 


7 


15 


14 


10 


71 


9 


13.5 


13 


15 


13 


12.5 


7 


8 


11 


10 


9 5 


14 


14 


11 


11 


12 


11 5 


72 


11 


9.5 


9 


8 


14 


16 


14 


15 


12 


14 


12 


11 


11 


11 


-6 


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11 


73 


10 


7 


8 


6 


13 


12.5 


7 


5 


14 


13 


6 


9 


8 


15 


8 


15 


8.5 


74 


12 


9.5 


8 


7 


8 


7 


10 


9.5 


14 


14 


12 


10 


8 


8 


9 


12 


9.5 


75 


12 


9.5 


10 


12.5 


11 


9 


6 


6 


9 


10 


8 


8 


12 


11 


7 


7 


9 75 


76 


10 


6 


12 


12.5 


14 


16 


10 


11.5 


14 


14 


12 


11 


7 


7 


11 


11 


U 25 


77 


6 


-5 


7 


6 


5 


-5 


6 


5 


9 


9 


5 


7 


8 


9 


11 


13 


6.5 



156 



THE MEDIAN MENTAL AGE 

equal to the median of a thirteen-and-a-half -year- 
old performance. On the Five Figure Board, Time 
and Errors, he receives a mental age of six in both 
cases. And so on with the other tests. The me- 
dian mental age of all these mental ages is seven, 
which is shown in the last column. The 16 different 
mental ages for each child give an indication of 
the amount of variation in his performance. Child 
No. 1, for example, makes a rather poor per- 
formance on the Diagonal Test, since his mental age 
here is five, whereas his median mental age is seven ; 
on the other hand, his best performances are on 
the Substitution and the speed of his performance 
on the Triangle Tests, his mental age in both cases 
being fourteen. This child varies in these tests from 
a mental age of five to one of fourteen. What this 
amount of variation means will become more obvi- 
ous if this method of median mental ages is used 
more generally. 

The distribution of these 77 ten-year-olds accord- 
ing to their median mental ages is as follows : 



Mental Age .... 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Total 


Number 


3 


6 


10 


8 


21 


10 


7 


6 

7.8 


6 

7.8 


77 


Percentage 


3.9 


7.8 


13.0 


10.4 


27.2 


13,0 


9.1 


100.0 



Of the total number of ten-year-olds 27.2 per 
cent make a mental age of ten. Fifty and one- 
half per cent make a mental age of either nine, 
ten or eleven. These may well be considered the 
normal cases. Those above the middle 50 per cent 

157 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

are probably bright and these constitute 24.7 per 
cent of the cases in this group. Those below the 
middle 50 per cent, making mental ages of eight 
and below, are probably backward and these make 
up 24.7 per cent of the cases. 

This sample gives promise of a reliable distri- 
bution with a sufficient number of tests and a suffi- 
cient number of cases at each age. If the sample 
distribution of our ten-year-olds should be the ordi- 
nary distribution for this age, then we might say 
that the normal or middle 50 per cent of the chil- 
dren can be expected to test at age or one year 
above or below. Similar definitions for backward, 
feeble-minded, bright and very bright children 
could be arrived at according to the distribution at 
each age. 

To sum up : The median mental age method rec- 
ommends itself as a quick and simple method of 
arriving at a mental age. Its reliability will have 
to be more adequately established by more data. It 
alloM's the addition or subtraction of tests with- 
out dislocating the whole scale. We believe that 
this method will prove itself of decided value in 
the future. 



kSK 



CHAPTER VII 

THE POINT SCALE 

The first practical application of allotting credit 
in points for various kinds of performances on a 
test was made by Yerkes, Bridges and Hardwick/ 
This method is new in its application to intelli- 
gence scales. It is, of course, the world-old device 
of teachers and pedagogues in marking their pupils, 
whether on the result of an oral recitation or of a 
written examination. The teacher or examiner him- 
self determines how many marks or points shall 
be given for each question or test, and decides, 
either with great accuracy or with little regard to 
accuracy, how many points shall be given to each 
type of answer or performance. This is practically 
what has been done in the Yerkes-Bridges Point 
Scale. Each test has been divided as conveniently 
as possible into parts and one or two points credit 
have been allowed to each part, very much in the 
same way as a teacher will allow one mark for 
each question answered correctly or for each ex- 
ample in arithmetic solved correctly, without any 

^Yerkes, R. M., Bridges, J. W., and Hardwick, R. S.: A 
Point Scale for Measuring Mental Ability, Warwick and York 
(1915). 

159 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

regard to the differing degrees of difficulty of the 
various questions or examples. 

The allotment of points in the Yerkes-Bridges 
Scale has been purely arbitrary'', as the authors 
themselves admit, and if any principle can be said 
to underlie the allotment of points, the only pos- 
sibility may be the convenience with which a test 
may be divided into parts. The table of the dif- 
ferent mental processes supposed to be measured by 
the tests ^ and the credits allowed to each mental 
process might have led some to infer that the 
authors were seeking an allotment of credits 
weighted according to their estimation of the value 
of these mental processes in the total complex 
called "general intelligence." This, however, is 
not the case, since the table is merely the state- 
ment of the actual number of points allotted to 
the different mental processes resulting from the 
group of tests that happened to have been chosen. 
We do not mean to imply by this that it is un- 
fortunate that the authors did not adopt some such 
principle as is suggested by the table mentioned. 
On the contrary, we think it fortunate that they 
have avoided this pitfall, since there would have 
resulted much fruitless discussion as to what men- 
tal processes are involved in the complex known as 
"general intelligence" and as to what particular 
weight or importance should be attached to each 
one of the processes supposed to enter into intel- 
ligence. Even if a point scale were to be drawn 

~ Idem, pp. S, 9. 

160 



THE POINT SCALE 

up from this point-of-view, it would result in as 
arbitrary an allotment of points as in the present 
Yerkes-Bridges Scale. The accuracy of the Yerkes- 
Bridges Scale, in spite of this arbitrary allotment 
of points, seems, to the writers, to be due to the fact 
that the tests of the scale have been so thoroughly 
tried out in the old Binet Scale. 

The only other point scale known to the writers 
which has appeared up to the present time is 
Haines' Point Scale for the Blind.^ This scale is 
modeled on the Yerkes-Bridges Scale and assigns 
points in the arbitrary manner of the latter. No- 
where does the author raise the question of any 
guiding principle in the allotment of points. The 
tests are largely adaptations of the tests used by 
Yerkes and Bridges, along with others devised by 
Haines and other workers. 

The introduction of the point scale has, never- 
theless, challenged the attention of workers and 
we cannot neglect the inevitable question as to the 
method of allotting points. Point scales of the 
future will have to adopt some underlying principle 
according to which points are to be allotted. We 
shall attempt a brief discussion of what seem to 
us, at present, possible principles in the allotment 
of points, bearing in mind always the type of test 
that we are discussing in the present volume. Some 
of what we have to say will hardly bear directly 

"Haines, T. H.: "Mental Measurements of the Blind," 
Psychological Monographs, Vol. xxi, No. 1, Whole No. 89 
(April, 1916). 

161 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

upon the type of test included in the present 
Binet style of scales. All of what we have to say 
Ts theoretical and will doubtless be much modified 
by practical work in the future. Three possible 
principles that might be formulated at present may 
be designated as follows: (1) points allotted ac- 
cording to the discriminative capacity of the test; 
(2) allotment of an equal number of points to each 
test; (3) points allotted according to the degree 
of difficulty of test as determined by the standardi- 
zation. We shall discuss these briefly in the above 
order. 

Discriminative Capacity of Test 

The medians at each age of tests such as ours 
may be taken to give an idea of the discriminative 
capacity of the test. This will appear clearly on 
the curve of the age medians. If the curve is a 
straight line it means that the medians at each 
age are the same, and obviously the test does not 
discriminate between six-, seven-, eight- or ten-year- 
old intelligence. A test showing medians of this 
sort would possess in terms of this phraseology no 
discriminative capacity. If the curve were to show 
a distinct rise (or fall) from age to age for all 
the ages tested, then the test would possess dis- 
criminative capacity for all those ages. It follows 
that the suddenness of the rise or fall at each age 
is a measure of the discriminative capacity pos- 
sessed by a test. Now, as a matter of fact, most 

162 



THE POINT SCALE 

curves for intelligence tests show more or less sud- 
den rises or falls at particular ages, and for the 
most part tend to become more and more level as 
we approach the higher ages. The allotment of 
points according to this principle would be made 
on the basis of the number of points on the curve 
that might be said to show the discriminative ca- 
pacity of the test. 

In the actual application of the principle the 
chief source of difficulty would lie in the deter- 
mination of the amount of steepness a curve must 
show in order to indicate a real difference between 
one age group and another. This steepness is again 
dependent upon the fineness of the grading or scor- 
ing system of the test. 

Let us take a few concrete examples from our 
own curves. Graph 15, p. 117, shows the medians 
at each age for the time taken to complete the Tri- 
angle Test. Beginning with the four-year-olds, 
we find a steep drop from D.N.C. to 275 seconds 
at- age five. The curve at this point is sufficiently 
steep or the difference between the two medians is 
sufficiently great to indicate that the test really 
discriminates between four- and five-year-old intel- 
ligence. Continuing, we note a still steeper drop 
from age five to age six, from 275 to 108 seconds; 
a fairly steep drop from age six to age seven, from 
108 to 77 seconds ; a moderately steep drop from age 
seven to age eight, from 77 to 64 seconds ; a mod- 
erately steep drop from age eight to age nine, from 
64 to 58 seconds; a less steep drop from age nine 

163 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

to age ten, from 58 to 55 seconds, a drop that might 
be considered doubtful of having real discriminative 
capacity; from age ten to age eleven the drop is 
from 55 to 49 seconds ; between age eleven and age 
twelve there cannot be said to be any drop (from 
49 to 48 seconds) and, therefore, no discrimi- 
native capacity; from twelve to thirteen the drop 
is steeper, from 48 to 37 seconds, and may be said 
to show some discriminative capacity; from there 
onwards the curve is practically level. Our choice 
of discriminative points on this test might well be 
at ages five, six, seven, eight, nine, eleven and thir- 
teen. By omitting ages ten and twelve we obtain 
a steeper drop, from nine to eleven, and again from 
eleven to thirteen. We might then say that the 
test shows 7 discriminative points and allot 7 credits 
to the test. A credit of 1 for a performance of 
about 275 seconds, i.e., the median for the five-year- 
olds; a credit of 2 for a performance of about 108 
seconds, i.e., the median for the six-year-olds; and 
so on. The actual limiting points would be deter- 
mined midway between these points as was done 
in the median mental age method. 

This illustration is merely a suggestion indicative 
of how the principle might be applied. It will read- 
ily be seen that the decision as to what is really a 
discriminative point on the curve is, in the last 
analysis, more or less arbitrary, inasmuch as a dif- 
ference of opinion as to what shall be considered 
a steep drop is bound to arise. Using the above 
illustration again, a different choice of points is 

164 



THE POINT SCALE 

readily conceivable, such as five, six, seven, eight 
and thirteen, by which choice only 4 credits would 
be allowed. Whether the insistence upon great 
differences between the medians would give better 
results than a more moderate standard can scarcely 
be determined theoretically. The best kind of 
standard to be employed would be shown by prac- 
tical work with scales constructed on this prin- 
ciple. 

The illustration we have taken has been pur- 
posely a fairly difficult one in order to show the 
difficulties of applying the principle. It is diffi- 
cult because of the fact that we are dealing with a 
time test where intervals of one second have been 
used. However, if we are dealing with a test that 
does not use such small intervals, either of time 
or score, the principle is easier to apply. In the 
Cube Test (Graph 27, p. 137) the method of scor- 
ing admits of 12 possible scores. Here the curve, 
if it rises at all, must rise by one of these large 
units. The determination of the points is easy, 
since every age at which the curve rises by one 
unit may be termed a discriminative point. In- 
spection of the graph shows such points to be at 
the ages four, five, six, seven, eight, eleven, four- 
teen, seventeen and eighteen, which would give us 
9 discriminative points and, therefore, 9 or 10 cred- 
its. The credits would be allotted as follows: 

For a score of 1 — 1 point 

" " " " 2 or 3— 2 points 
165 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 



For a score 


of 4 


— 3 points 




" 5 


4 " 




" 6 


5 " 




" 7 


6 " 




" 8 


— 7 " 




" 9 


8 " 




" 10 


9 " 



above 10—10 



It can be seen from this example how this prin- 
ciple differs in the allotment of points from the 
Yerkes-Bridges principle of allowing the test itself 
to determine the number of points. If the test 
itself were to determine the number of points there 
would be 12 points allowed, because there happen 
to be 12 steps in the test. By the principle under 
discussion only 10 points can be allowed. On the 
other hand, it may be objected that a score of 3 
is better than a score of 2 and, therefore, ought to 
be given more points, whereas by this method the 
same number of points is allowed for a score of 3 
as for a score of 2. To which the reply would 
be that it seems just as easy to score 3 as to 
score 2 on the Cube Test as shown by the me- 
dians, and therefore no more points should be al- 
lowed. 

We believe this principle to be a decided step in 
advance over the arbitrary method or lack of 
method employed in point scales up to the present 
time. Nevertheless there seems to be a valid argu- 
ment against it. The objection may be summed 

166 



THE POINT SCALE 

up in the statement that easy and difficult tests 
are allowed the same number of points. Or, stated 
otherwise, a difficult test does not receive more 
credit than an easy one. This objection is equally 
true of the point scale of the Yerkes-Bridges type. 
Is this a valid objection? Let us try to imagine 
how it will work out in actual practice. Let us 
imagine two tests each having 3 discriminative 
points, and therefore 3 credits, the one an easy test 
and the other a difficult one. The child who passes 
both will score 6 points, and the child who passes 
one, only, will score 3 points. As a rule, of course, 
the child who makes any score on the difficult test 
will score three points on the easy test as well, but 
ought not the child passing the difficult test to be 
given a greater number of points than the child 
passing the easy one, because he has passed a much 
more difficult test? In other words, the difference 
in the scores of these two children will not show 
the difference in their ability. The ultimate deter- 
mination will, of course, be made by reference to 
the norms established by the scale as a whole, but 
it would seem only fair that a hard test passed by 
a child should be given more credit than an easy 
test. If for some extraneous and uncontrollable 
reason a child fails on an easy test but passes a 
hard one, he will be penalized very severely, and 
will receive the same score as the child who passed 
the easy test and failed on the hard one, because he 
did not possess enough intelligence to accomplish 
it. This objection is of the same nature as the 

167 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

one urged by Stern * against the Binet Scale and 
its system of adding % of a year for an additional 
test passed regardless of how difficult the additional 
test might be. The method he proposed, to over- 
come this difficulty, was to "weight" the test passed 
according to the year group to which it belonged. 

In view of this objection, then, it seems desirable 
to look for another principle by which to allot 
points. 

Allotment of an Equal Number of Points to 
Each Test 

We do not offer this principle as one which 
obviates the difficulty raised in the preceding para- 
graphs, since it will be seen that the same objection 
applies with almost equal force. It does not, how- 
ever, permit the anomaly of giving more points 
for a correct performance of an easy test than for 
a correct performance of a more difficult one. It 
gives to the best type of performance on all tests 
the same number of points. In this particular, 
then, it may be regarded as somewhat of an 
advance over the last principle. It arbitrarily 
assumes all tests to be of equal value and allots a 
definite number of points to each test. Each dif- 
ferent type of performance into which a test divides 
itself is given the same number of points. The 

^ Stern, W. : The Psyeliological Methods of Testing Intel- 
ligence, Trs. by Whipple, Educational Psychology Mono- 
graphs, No. 13, Warwick and York. 

168 



THE POINT SCALE 

number of different types of performance into 
which a test divides itself is determined, as in the 
previous case, by the median performances at each 
age. Having determined upon the number of 
median intervals which seem to be discriminative, 
this number is divided into the definite number of 
points which have been decided upon. If, for ex- 
ample, we have decided to allot 20 points to each 
test and if we have 5 discriminative points or types 
of performance as determined by the actual results 
of the individuals tested, then we shall allot 4 points 
to each type of performance. The poorest type of 
performance will score 4 points, the next 8, and so 
on up to the best or complete performance, which 
will have a score of 20. We shall not discuss the 
application of this principle any further at this 
point, because we have drawn up a point scale for 
our tests on this basis, and the application of the 
principle will be best seen in actually dealing with 
the tests themselves later on. 

The objection urged above to the first principle 
still holds good here, although perhaps not with 
equal force. This compels us to look around for 
some method whereby this objection may be over- 
come. 

Points Allotted According to Degree of 
Difficulty of Tests 

The logical conclusion that we have been driven 
to, and the only one which seems possible, is to allot 

169 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

points for various types of performance according 
to the varying degrees of difficulty of different 
types of performance. Our different types of per- 
formance can be determined only by the results 
from children themselves, and the only question re- 
mains as to the determination of the degrees of 
difficulty of these different types. What is to be 
the criterion of the degree of difficulty in different 
steps of the same test and in different steps of dif- 
ferent tests? For exapiple: How difficult is a 
certain performance on the Adaptation Board in 
comparison with a certain performance on the Cube 
Test? A priori we may say, after seeing the two 
tests, that a perfect performance on the Adaptation 
Board is easier than a perfect performance on the 
Cube Test, but much beyond this we cannot go. A 
little experience with the tests would lead to a 
little better comparison, and more experience to 
still better comparisons of different degrees of diffi- 
culty of the one test with the other. These com- 
parisons, it is to be carefully noted, are all based 
upon the ease or difficulty with which different 
children perform the tests. So, logically, we are 
driven back to the best available comparison in the 
norms for the tests at various ages. To do all the 
five moves on the Adaptation Board correctly is 
about as easy or difficult as to do six of the Cube 
Lines correctly, because average eight-year-olds can 
do both of these performances. Two moves on the 
Adaptation Board are about equal to two lines on 
the Cube Test, because these are the norms for five- 

170 



THE POINT SCALE 

year-olds, and so on with all the other tests. Fun- 
damentally, the last judge of the ease or difficulty 
of a test is the child himself. Average five-year- 
olds set standards of ease or difficulty for all five- 
year-olds. Unless we abandon the customary and 
sound hypothesis as to the development of intel- 
ligence with age, the chronological age of the child 
is the measure of our test. This is the fundamental 
truth at the bottom of Binet's system of the meas- 
urement of intelligence, which no critic of his sys- 
tem has been able to controvert. However clumsy 
we may deem the way in which Binet himself made 
use of this fundamental truth, we must admit that 
the critics of Binet who have put forth the point 
scale method as a superior device have merely 
adopted a still more clumsy device in their attempt 
to apply this fundamental truth. The Yerkes- 
Bridges Point Scale has worked admirably in prac- 
tice, thanks to our years of experience with the tests 
in the Binet Scale. Binet at least attempted to 
"weight" his tests according to the ability of normal 
children. The Yerkes-Bridges tests are not 
"weighted" according to any principle, unless the 
caprice of the constructor of the scale may be 
termed a guiding principle. 

We have in this discussion been dinven to the only 
logical conclusion that seems possible, namely, that 
in the allotment of points the underlying principle 
is the chronological age of the child. The natural 
application of this is to give to each type of per- 
formance a number of points corresponding to the 

171 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

chronological age for which this performance is dis- 
tinctive. For example, since average five-year-olds 
can do 2 moves on the Adaptation Board, we must 
give a score of 5 to 2 moves on this board; for 4 
moves on the board we must give a score of 6, 
since 4 moves is the average performance of six- 
year-olds. Similarly 5 points must be given to 2 
Cube Lines, and 6 to 4 Cube Lines, and 7 to 5 Cube 
Lines, since these lines are passed correctly by 
average five-, six- and seven-year-olds respectively. 

We might conceivably decide not to give the same 
number of points as number of chronological years, 
but begin with an arbitrary number of one point 
for four-year-old performances, 2 points for five- 
year-old performances, and so on. Or we might 
try a still further refinement and argue that, since 
there is a greater difference in intelligence between 
the earlier years than the later years of a child's 
life, we should make a greater difference in the 
number of points at the earlier years than at the 
later. For instance, we might give one point to a 
four-j^ear-old performance, 6 points to a five-year- 
old performance, 10 points to a six-year-old, gradu- 
ally decreasing our additional increment of points 
as we come to the higher ages. All of these schemes 
seem to us to be more or less justifiable. All of 
them are a recognition of the fundamental prin- 
ciple that the chronological age determines the ease 
or difficulty of the test, and reference to it is the 
only way of properly "weighting" our tests. 

Having arrived at this conclusion, the question 

172 



THE POINT SCALE 

arises as to whether we gain anything by allotting 
points, since we are forced to allot points in accord- 
ance with the performances in terms of chrono- 
logical years. If we allot points according to years 
and then establish norms, will we arrive at any- 
thing differing from the median mental age method 
discussed in Chapter VI? If we establish our age 
norms for the scale on the basis of averages, they 
will differ only slightly from the medians and will, 
we believe, be slightly less desirable. If we use 
medians, we are doing exactly the same thing as 
using the median mental age, and this method we 
have discussed at length in the previous chapter. 

We have, therefore, in this discussion of the un- 
derlying principles of a point scale method been 
forced back to the median mental age and are com- 
pelled to question the validity of a point scale 
that differs in principle from the median men- 
tal age. At present we see no loophole in this 
argument. A point scale, as such, seems to have 
no right to exist. It can only be a modified form 
of the median mental age method. 

Tentative Point Scale 

There are, nevertheless, practical reasons in fa- 
vor of the use of points. There is a certain ease 
in calculation and in the establishment of a coeffi- 
cient of mental ability. We have drawn up a 
tentative point scale on the basis of our second 
method, i.e., the allotment of an equal number of 

173 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

points to each test. To draw up a point scale 
according to the third method would have resulted 
merely in a repetition of the median mental age 
method. It may be that some workers will desire 
to use the point scale system, and results expressed 
in scores lend themselves to all kinds of mathemati- 
cal treatment. 

Taking the principle of the allotment of an equal 
number of points to each test, the number of dis- 
criminative places that each test seemed to show 
was first ascertained from the tables of medians in 
Chapter IV and the discriminative steps more or 
less arbitrarily determined. The number of dis- 
criminative steps for each test can be seen in the 
list of tests on page 175, with their discriminative 
points, the number of points credit allowed to each 
discriminative point, and the total points for each 
test. 

A number was chosen which would allow as 
nearly as possible an equal division into all tests, 
so that the use of fractions might be avoided. 
Thirty points for each test was the number chosen, 
this being large enough to allow differentiation be- 
tween tests having a different number of discrimi- 
native steps, and on the other hand not too large to 
make the addition of credits for the tests as a group 
too cumbersome. Thirty or 28 or 32 can be di- 
vided by all the different groups of discriminative 
steps of the tests. The column headed "Points 
Credit" gives the number of points for each step 
of the test, and the next column headed "Total" 

174 



THE POINT SCALE 



TEST 

Mare and Foal 

a li a 


SCORE 

Time 
Errors 


DISCRIMINATIVE 
POINTS 

.5 
5 


POINTS 
CREDIT 

6 
6 


TOTAL 
POINTS 

30 
30 


Seguin Form Board 


Time 


5 


6 


30 


Five Figure Board 


Time 


6 


5 


30 


(< (( <( 


Errors 


6 


5 


30 


Il^wo Figure Board 


Time 


6 


5 


30 


(c a a 


Moves 


4 


7 


28 


Casuist Form Board 


Time 


7 


4 


28 


(( (< << 


Errors 


7 


4 


28 


Triangle 


Time 


7 


4 


28 


ii 


Errors 


7 


4 


28 


Diagonal 


Time 
Errors 


6 
8 


5 
4 


30 
32 


Healy Puzzle "A" 

^l a i( 


Time 
Moves 


8 

7 


4 
4 


32 

28 


Manikin 


Score 


4> 


7 


28 


Feature Profile 


Time 


4 


7 


28 


Ship 

Picture Completion 


Score 
Score 


6 
10 


5 
3 


30 
30 


Substitution 


Score 


8 


4 


32 


Adaptation Board 
Cube 


Moves 5 
No. Correct 8 


6 
4 


30 
32 



652 



gives the total number of points for each test. 
Each test is given from 28 to 32 points. The total 
for all the tests is 652 points.. 

The number of points being determined, the as- 
signment of them to the discriminative intervals is 

175 



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31-25 

10 

157-107 

10 

10-7 

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187-146 

14 

19-13 

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129-100 

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20-10 

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191-93 

8 
19-12 

10 

162-113 

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6 

150-89 

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10-5 

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42-32 

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300-158 

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30-11 

5 

300-188 

7 

45-20 

4 

250-130 

4 

31-21 

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300-192 

4 

35-20 

5 

300-163 

4 

35-19 




Points 
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177 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

the next step. These discriminative intervals with 
the number of points allotted to each are shown 
in Table 25. For each test or part of a test for 
which credit is allowed, the score and the nmnber 
of points are shown. Thus, for the Mare and Foal 
Test (Time), 6 points are given for all scores (in 
this case time in seconds) that lie between 150 and 
89. No credit is allowed for scores greater than 
150. Twelve points are allowed for scores from 
88 to 55\ 18 points for scores from 54 to 35; 24 
points for scores from 34 to 25; and 30 points for 
all scores less than 25. The rest of the table is 
to be read in the same way. 

The next logical step in the construction of a 
point scale would have been to work over the orig- 
inal data allotting points for all the tests and thus 
arriving at norms for each age. This the writers 
were unfortunately unable to do, since the children 
from whom our data were obtained were not tested 
on all the tests. To arrive at age norms for the 
scale as a whole, each individual should be tested 
on all of the tests of the scale. If this is not 
done, there remains the further possibility of taking 
the average or median for each test at each age and 
using the totals of these medians or averages for 
the age norms for each age. This is the method 
we have employed to arrive at tentative age norms. 

Practically, there will be little difference in 
the age norms thus established from the age norms 
arrived at by taking averages for all children tested 
on all the tests of the scale. We find a practical 

178 



■I 



THE POINT SCALE 



Table 26. Median Scores for Each Test and Each 
Year. Point Scale Method. 

















Age 














Test 
























































4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


1. Mare and Foal: 


























Time 


6 



6 
6 


12 
12 


12 
12 


18 
18 


18 
18 


18 
24 


24 
18 


18 
18 


24 

24 


24 
18 


24 
18 


30 




30 


2. Seguin: 




Time 





6 


12 


18 


18 


18 


24 


24 


24 


30 


30 


30 


30 


3. Five Figure Board: 




Time 










5 
5 


10 
10 


15 
15 


20 
20 


25 
20 


25 
20 


25 
25 


30 
25 


25 
25 


25 
20 


30 


Errors 


30 


4. Two Figure Board: 




























Time 





5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


25 


25 


25 


30 


30 


25 


30 


Moves 





7 


7 


7 


14 


21 


14 


21 


14 


21 


21 


21 


28 


5. Casuist Form Board: 








































4 


4 

8 


8 
12 


12 
16 


16 
20 


20 
20 


24 
24 


16 

28 


28 
28 


20 
24 


28 


Errors 


28 


6. Triangle Test: 




Time 






4 
4 


8 
8 


12 
12 


16 
16 


20 
16 


20 
16 


20 
20 


20 
20 


28 
28 


24 
24 


28 
24 


98 


Errors 


28 


7. Diagonal Test: 




























Time 





5 


10 


15 


15 


20 


25 


20 


20 


30 


30 


25 


30 


Errors 





4 


8 


12 


12 


20 


20 


12 


16 


28 


32 


24 


32 


8. Healy Puzzle "A": 




























Time 











4 


8 


12 


16 


20 


24 


28 


20 


32 


32 


Moves 











4 


8 


12 


16 


20 


24 


24 


24 


,28 


28 


9. Manikin Test: 






























7 


14 


21 


21 


28 


28 


28 


28 


28 


28 


28 


28 


28 


10. Feature Profile Test: 
























7 


14 


14 


21 


28 


21 


28 


11. Ship Test: 












10 


10 


15 


20 


20 


25 


30 


30 


20 


25 


30 


12. Picture Completion: 




Score 





3 


6 


9 


12 


15 


18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


30 


30 


13. Substitution Test: 

































4 


8 


12 


16 


20 


24 


28 


32 


32 


32 


28 


32 


14. Adaptation Board: 






6 


12 


24 


24 


30 


30 


30 


30 


30 


30 


30 


30 


30 


15. Cube Test: 






4 


8 


12 


16 


20 


20 


20 


24 


24 


24 


28 


24 


32 






Total 


23 


88 


182 


247 


334 


401 


446 


479 


503 


586 


579 


554 


652 



179 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

example of this in Yerkes-Bridges' ^ norms. From 
a table showing the average score for each test and 
each year, we were able to arrive at a total number 
of points for each year, and to compare the total 
points with the age norms established by taking 
the average of the total scores made by the chil- 
dren on all the tests of the scale. At 4 ages the 
two norms are exacth^ the same, at 7 ages there is 
a difference of only 1 point, and at 1 age only 
is there a difference of 2 points. The discrepancy 
is, therefore, not very great. We may, therefore, 
obtain from our data tentative norms in this man- 
ner until a more accurate standardization is judged 
feasible. 

From the tables of medians for each age the 
number of points was determined, and these me- 
dian number of points for each test for each year 
are given in Table 26. The table is to be read as 
follows: In the Mare and Foal Test (Time) the 
median number of points scored by the four-year- 
olds is 6, by the five-year-olds 6, by the six-year-olds 
12, and so on up to 30 points by the sixteen-year- 
olds. The other lines are to be read in the same 
way. At the bottom of the table is given the total 
score for each age, and these values are the age 
norms for use in practical testing. Graph 28 rep- 
resents these age norms graphically. It will be 
noted that there is a steady increase in the norm 
from age four up to age thirteen. Ages fourteen 
and fifteen fall below age thirteen and the norms 

° Yerkes, Bridges and Hardwick: Op. cit., p. 123. 

180 



THE POINT SCALE 






400 
360 
320 
280 
240 
200 
160 
120 

80 

40 



Age 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 

Graph 28. — Age Norms for Point Scale Method. Ordinates 
indicate points scored; abscissae, age by years. 

here are not to be relied upon. Age sixteen is 
given a perfect score, since we have no data be- 
yond age sixteen. Individuals at any age making 
a score of 600 would undoubtedly show excellent 

181 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

ability on these tests. The results of individuals 
could be compared with these norms in the usual 
way and the coefficient of mental ability obtained 
by dividing the score made by the norm for the 
age of the child tested. As to where the limiting 
points between feeble-mindedness and backward- 
ness and normality would lie, there would be the 
usual difference of opinion, but these points could 
be set as easily on this scale as on any other. 

One drawback of the point scale, as the writers 
see it, has been touched upon in this discussion: 
namely, that for the establishment of valid norms 
the cases must be tested on all the tests of the 
scale. In other words, when we set out to stand- 
ardize a point scale, we must fix upon our tests 
beforehand and depart from them afterwards at 
the risk of spoiling the standardization or of having 
to resort to some such device as we have been 
compelled to use. 

Another drawback, due to this interlocking char- 
acter of any point scale, is due to the fact that 
with any individual case that we are testing we 
must use all the tests before we can employ our 
results to any advantage. The age norm is estab- 
lished on the basis of all the tests and we run a 
serious risk of doing injustice to a case if we omit 
any test. A child often scores points where an 
examiner may have felt that any score was impos- 
sible. This objection is, of course, equally valid 
for the year scale, but not for the median mental 
age method nor for the percentile method. If we 

182 



THE POINT SCALE 

do omit a test on the point scale, we should have 
to go back to our table and compute new norms 
with this test omitted. This would be a very incon- 
venient and laborious procedure in practical work. 

The discussion, in this chapter, of the principles 
of the point scale is an attempt on our part to 
raise the whole question of the validity and justi- 
fication of the point scale method. We do not claim 
to have given a final answer to this question. The 
results of our tests have been presented for use as 
a point scale, although we are well aware of the 
tentative nature of the norms as established and the 
limitations of the point scale method. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE PERCENTILE METHOD 

The presentation of the results of tests in the 
form of percentile tables is a comparatively recent 
innovation in the history of mental tests. It has 
arisen naturally with the testing of large groups 
of individuals. The method would be impossible 
with few cases. It has arisen, also, from a desire 
to know what the distribution of a group really is 
in respect to the various portions that go to make 
up the total group. Our belief that individuals, in 
regard to all kinds of abilities, distribute themselves 
on a normal curve with the very good ones at one 
end and the very poor at the other, rather than 
into distinct types, is leading us to insist more and 
more upon a presentation of results that can be 
interpreted in this manner. The 25 and 75 per- 
centiles so commonly used at present are the result 
of our desire to know what the middle 50 per cent 
or "normal" group of the individuals tested can 
do. The addition of other percentile points gives 
us a finer means of discrimination. It has long been 
customary to consider the middle 50 per cent nor- 
mal, the upper 20 or 15 per cent bright, the upper- 
most 10 or 5 per cent very bright, the lower 20 

184 



THE PERCENTILE METHOD 

or 15 per cent poor, and the lowest 10 or 5 per cent 
very poor. The division into 10 percentiles will 
allow us to increase our groups greatly, and in 
time to attach a definite meaning to each of the 10 
percentile abilities. ^ 

A further very decided advantage of the per- 
centile method for purposes of mental testing is 
that it allows us to compare each individual with 
individuals of the same age. The individual is 
ranked according to the performances of individ- 
uals of like age, while at the same time allowing 
cross comparisons with any percentiles of any other 
age. 

Woolley ^ seems to have been the first to suggest 
the percentile method for practical use in mental 
testing. She presents the results of all her tests 
in tables of 10 percentiles. Using these as indices 
of the child's ability on each test, an average of the 
percentiles for a number of tests gives an index for 
the child. Her distribution tables, giving the aver- 
ages of the percentile ranks, show a decided tend- 
ency toward the normal type of distribution. In 
addition to this she has taken the next logical step 
and presented a percentile table of average percen- 
tile ranks. That is, the average percentile rank of an 
individual resulting from all the tests of a scale can 
now be interpreted in the light of all the average per- 

1 Woolley, H. T. : "A New Scale of Mental and Physical 
Measurements for Adolescents, and Some of Its Uses," Jour- 
nal of Educational Psychology, Vol. vi. No. 9 (1915), pp. 521- 
550. 

185 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

centile ranks of all the children tested on the scale, 
and can be placed in its proper percentile. In this 
way norms can be established in terms of the aver- 
age percentile rank of a group of tests. As a mat- 
ter of fact, these norms could be used as age norms 
in much the same way as the points in the point 
scale ; but if we once begin to think in terms of per- 
centiles, we will take the next logical step, as Wool- 
ley has done, and convert them into a percentile 
table of distribution from which we may read off 
the percentile of the average percentile rank. 

As we have said in a previous chapter, it appears 
to us that this type of standardization is the most 
thorough and may ultimately prevail over all other 
types. It allows of the finest differentiations and 
the most just comparisons of an individual with 
individuals of the same age. The only drawback 
that we can see to it at present is that, for a reliable 
determination of all of our ten percentile points, 
a very large number at each age will be necessary. 

We have presented our results in tables of per- 
centiles so that they may be used by workers adopt- 
ing this method. These percentiles have been com- 
puted from the tables of distribution in Chapter IV. 
The accumulation of more data and the addition 
of this to the tables of distribution would lead, 
of course, to a gradual perfection of our percentile 
points. It is conceivable that some day 5 percentile 
points may be practicable, if mental testing ever has 
need of such fine discriminations. At the present 
time, however, 10 percentile points give us finer 

186 



THE PERCENTILE METHOD 

differentiations than we have so far been accus- 
tomed to use. 

The Tables 

Tables 27 to 48 give the ten percentile distribu- 
tion at each age for all the twenty-two tests used. 
Table 27 is to be read as follows : On the Mare and 
Foal Test, Time, the best or 100 percentile score 
for five-year-olds is 50, and (continuing down the 
vertical column) the 90 percentile score, or the 
score reached by the 90 per cent child, from the 
poorest upwards, is 63; for the 80 percentile child 
the score is 70, and so on down the columns. All 
the other tables are to be read in the same way. 

Cross comparisons can readily be made from 
these tables. For example: In Table 27 we note 
that the best five-year-olds (time 50) are equal to 
the 80 percentile six-year-olds, about the 60 per- 
centile seven-year-olds, the 40 percentile eight- 
year-olds, the 25 percentile nine-year-olds, the 15 
percentile ten-year-olds, the 10 percentile eleven- 
year-olds, the 20 percentile twelve-year-olds, and 
make scores as bad as the very poorest thirteen- and 
fourteen-year-olds. The very poorest thirteen- and 
fourteen-year-olds can perform this test as quickly 
as the very brightest five-year-olds. These kinds of 
comparisons may lead to some norm in the future 
and may materially help our understanding of the 
general development of intelligence. 

The practical working out of the percentile 
method will be shown in the later discussion of 

187 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Table 27. The Mare and Foal Test. Percentiles. 

Time. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


50 


30 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


10 


10 


10 


90 


63 


44 


34 


30 


25 


24 


23 


22 


21 


22 


80 


70 


50 


38 


35 


30 


28 


25 


25 


23 


25 


70 


78 


61 


44 


39 


34 


32 


28 


29 


25 


28 


60 


95 


66 


49 


44 


38 


34 


32 


32 


27 


29 


50 


107 


71 


62 


48 


41 


36 


34 


35 


29 


31 


40 


116 


78 


66 


52 


45 


39 


37 


39 


30 


35 


30 


150 


86 


73 


57 


48 


43 


39 


42 


32 


36 


20 


190 


98 


87 


66 


53 


47 


44 


49 


36 


39 


10 


280 


136 


109 


83 


64 


54 


49 


57 


42 


46 





D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


120 


120 


70 


79 


49 


50 



Table 28. The Mare and Foal Test. Percentiles. 

Errors. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


2 





























90 


4 


1 


1 























80 


5 


2 


1 


1 


1 





1 








1 


70 


6 


2 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


60 


7 


3 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


50 


7 


3 


3 


2 


2 


1 


2 


2 


1 


2 


40 


8 


4 


3 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


30 


10 


5 


4 


3 


3 


2 


2 


3 


2 


2 


20 


12 


6 


5 


4 


4 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


10 


14+ 


8 


7 


5 


5 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 





D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


8 


12 


7 


8 


5 


6 



188 



THE PERQENTILE METHOD 

/ 

/ 

Table 29. The Seguin Form Board. Percentiles. 

Time. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


22 


18 


15 


14' 


13 


12 


9 


10 


9 


9 


90 


26 


20 


18 


16 


15 


13 


12 


11 


11 


9 


80 


29 


21 


20 


17 


15 


14 


13 


12 


11 


10 


70 


32 


24 


21 


19 


16 


15 


14 


12 


12 


10 


60 


34 


24 


22 


20 


17 


15 


14 


13 


12 


11 


50 


37 


26 


23 


20- 


18 


16 


15 


14 


12 


11 


40 


39 


27 


24 


21 


18 


17 


15 


14 


13 


12 


30 


42 


29 


25 


21 


20 


18 


16 


15 


13 


12 


>'20- 


44 


31 


27 


23 


21 


19 


16 


15 


14 


13 


10 


50 


34 


28 


25- 


24 


21 


17 


17 


15 


14 





75 


41 


38 


32 


34 


27 


24 


23 


17 


17 



Table 30. The Five Figure Form Board. Percentiles. 

Time. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


40 


30 


30 


30 


30 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


90 


107- 


78 


60 


56 


44 


40 


38 


34 


29 


29 


80 - 


124 


95 


74 


64 


53 


47 


45 


39 


33 


41 


70 


185 


132 


85 


71 


58 


52 


49 


46 


36 


49 


60 


224 


159 


97 


85 


68 


61 


57 


51 


39 


54 


50 


D.N.C. 


200 


117 


97 


79 


69 


64 


58 


47 


59 


40 


D.N.C. 


249 


149 


120 


92 


82 


73 


66 


53 


66 


30 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


191 


137 


116 


96 


81 


77 


59 


72 


20 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


184 


160 


117 


99 


94 


67 


100 


10 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


285 


D.N.C. 


145 


162 


121 


86 


190 





D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


262 


150 


237 



189 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Table 31. The Five Figure Form Board. Percentiles. 

Errors. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


1 


























1 


90 


6 


3 


3 


2 


1 


1" 


1 


1 


1 


1 


80 


7 


5 


3 


3 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


70 


16 


7 


4 


3 


3 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


60 


19 


10 


6 


5 


4 


3 


3 


2 


2 


3 


50 


D.N.C. 


14 


7 


6 


4 


4 


4 


3 


3 


3 


40 


D.N.C. 


21 


9 


7 


5 


4 


5 


4 


4 


4 


30 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


14 


10 


7 


6 


6 


5 


5 


5 


20 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


15 


10 


8 


7 


6 


5 


7 


10 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


25 


D.N.C. 


11 


11 


11 


7 


13 





D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


30 


22 


20 



Table 32. The Two Figure Form Board. Percentiles. 

Time. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


30 


20 


20 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


90 


65 


44 


42 


29 


26 


26 


23 


23 


16 


19 


80 


85 


54 


51 


37 


31 


29 


25 


28 


21 


34 


70 


113 


76 


59 


43 


36 


35 


28 


31 


24 


28 


60 


137 


126 


77 


49 


40 


40 


31 


36 


27 


29 


50 


200 


175 


116 


62 


47 


47 


38 


39 


29 


35 


40 


300+ 


300 


157 


79 


60 


62 


44 


46 


32 


45 


30 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


224 


102 


79 


101 


56 


55 


38 


55 


20 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


149 


106 


122 


75 


64 


45 


78 


10 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


275 


224 


198 


123 


89 


79 


120 





D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


300+ 


160 


D.N.C. 



190 



THE PERCENTILE METHOD 



Table 33. The Two Figure Form Board. Percentiles. 

Moves. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


10 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


90 


12 


10 


11 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


80 


15 


11 


12 


11 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


9 


70 


16 


14 


13 


11 


11 


11 


10 


11 


10 


10 


60 


18 


18 


16 


13 


11 


11 


11 


11 


10 


10 


50 


21 


24 


20 


14 


12 


13 


11 


12 


11 


11 


40 


35 


44 


24 


16 


13 


15 


12 


13 


11 


12 


30 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


32 


20 


17 


19 


14 


14 


13 


12 


20 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


24 


21 


24 


17 


16 


13 


13 


10 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


40 


40 


37 


25 


19 


19 


21 





D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


45 


45 


D.N.C. 



Table 34. The Casuist Form Board. Percentiles. Time. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


80 


50 


40 


40 


30 


20 


20 


30 


20 


20 


90 


112 


98 


65 


56 


48 


49 


43 


44 


49 


41 


80 


174 


132 


84 


65 


59 


56 


50 


51 


55 


44 


70 


249 


163 


105 


79 


65 


63 


55 


55 


62 


49 


60 


281 


228 


118 


93 


79 


71 


62 


62 


67 


53 


50 


D.N.C. 


300 


154 


106 


93 


78 


68 


66 


75 


58 


40 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


186 


130 


114 


89 


79 


75 


86 


63 


30 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


236 


151 


155 


116 


94 


94 


99 


79 


20 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


189 


224 


149 


114 


116 


120 


90 


10 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


208 


179 


224 


149 


173 





D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


300 


300 


300 



191 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

Table 35. The Casuist Form Board. Percentiles. 

Errors. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


5 





1 























90 


10 


6 


4 


2 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


80 


18 


10 


6 


3 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


1 


70 


29 


13 


8 


4 


3 


3 


3 


3 


2 


1 


60 


31 + 


21 


9 


6 


5 


4 


4 


3 


3 


2 


50 


D.N.C. 


30 


12 


8 


7 


5 


5 


4 


3 


3 


40 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


14 


12 


10 


7 


6 


5 


5 


3 


30 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


23 


14 


11 


9 


7 


6 


6 


4 


20 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


18 


21 


14 


10 


8 


7 


8 


10 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


21 


13 


16 


10 


12 





D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


31+ 


29 


17 



Table 36. The Triangle Test. Percentiles. Time. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


30 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


8 


10 


10 


90 


72 


30 


28 


25 


25 


17 


20 


19 


15 


14 


80 


103 


55 


38 


35 


33 


29 


27 


27 


19 


18 


70 


178 


70 


45 


43 


38 


37 


34 


34 


26 


28 


60 


220 


85 


56 


52 


46 


46 


44 


39 


32 


33 


50 


275 


108 


77 


64 


58 


55 


49 


48 


37 


39 


40 


D.N.C. 


190 


103 


79 


81 


74 


65 


58 


43 


48 


30 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


154 


106 


104 


84 


77 


76 


49 


70 


20 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


266 


173 


139 


98 


108 


99 


78 


100 


10 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


250 


176 


137 


128 


158 


100 


125 





D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


265 


175 


250 



192 



THE PERCENTILE METHOD 



Table 37. The Triangle Test. Percentiles. Errors. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


5 





1 





1 











1 


1 


90 


10 


4 


3 


2 


3 


3 


2 


2 


2 


2 


80 


11 


5 


5 


4 


4 


4 


3 


3 


3 


2 


70 


19 


7 


6 


5 


5 


5 


4 


5 


4 


4 


60 


22 


11 


8 


6 


7 


6 


7 


6 


4 


4 


50 


27 


13 


11 


8 


8 


8 


7 


7 


5 


6 


40 


D.N.C. 


18 


14 


10 


11 


9 


10 


8 


6 


7 


30 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


23 


16 


15 


10 


12 


10 


8 


8 


20 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


39 


24 


17 


14 


15 


14 


9 


10 


10 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


33 


23 


22 


19 


19 


12 


12 





D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


35+ 


25 


16 



Table 38. The Diagonal Test. Percentiles, Time. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


9 


10 


9 


9 


10 


90 


49 


25 


23 


19 


17 


16 


16 


13 


13 


13 


80 


94 


41 


39 


25 


22 


22 


22 


16 


15 


16 


70 


120 


66 


50 


34 


29 


29 


26 


26 


19 


19 


60 


155 


85 


62 


49 


37 


35 


41 


35 


20 


20 


50 


275 


150 


75 


76 


49 


42 


54 


54 


25 


25 


40 


D.N.C. 


200 


94 


106 


79 


52 


89 


70 


32 


29 


30 


D.N.C. 


290 


137 


175 


108 


70 


120 


90 


39 


35 


20 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


250 


225 


159 


107 


149 


137 


56 


49 


10 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


300+ 


198 


224 


200 


88 


98 





D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


170 


200 



193 



A SCALE OF PERFORMAXCE TESTS 



Table 39. The Diagonal Test. Percenteles. Errors. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 
































90 


i 





a 


1 





1 


1 


1 








80 


1 


5 


4 


3 


1 


2 


2 


1 


1 


1 


70 


10 


9 


6 


5 


2 


4 


4 


3 


2 


1 


60 


13 


10 


8 


6 


5 


5 


6 


4 


3 


1 


50 


23 


14 


9 


9 


6 


6 


9 


7 


4 


2 


40 


D.X.C. 


19 


13 


16 


9 


8 


13 


9 


5 


4 


30 


D.X.C. 


38 


19 


21 


15 


9 


18 


14 


6 


6 


20 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


35 


32 


20 


15 


25 


20 


7 


7 


10 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


37 


24 


34 


27 


10 


14 





D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X-.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


25 


25 



T.\BLE 40. Healy Puzzle "A." Percentiles. Time. 



Age 


5 


6 


/ 


8 


9 


10 


11 


1-2 


13 


14 


15 


Per 
























Cents. 
























100 


40 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


8 


8 


5 


10 


5 


90 


138 


90 


33 


26 


26 


18 


16 


17 


15 


15 


10 


80 


274 


159 


46 


38 


36 


28 


22 


23 


20 


21 


15 


70 


D.X.C. 


199 


75 


71 


45 


41 


28 


30 


26 


29 


20 


60 


D.X.C. 


262 


118 


89 


68 


52 


38 


38 


33 


30 


24 


50 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


131 


117 


86 


70 


54 


46 


38 


55 


30 


40 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


183 


132 


92 


68 


60 


46 


82 


48 


30 


D.N.C. 


D.X-.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


181 


120 


85 


71 


60 


90 


75 


20 


D.X.C. 


D.X'.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


215 


186 


107 


118 


70 


109 


120 


10 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 300+ 


225 


174 


95 


174 


213 





D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. D.X'.C. 

1 


D.X.C. 


D.X.C. 


275 


D.X.C. 


275 



194 



THE PERCENTILE METHOD 



Table 41. Healy Puzzle "A." Percentiles. Moves. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Per 
























Cents. 
























100 


10 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


90 


15 


19 


11 


7 


9 


8 


7 


7 


7 


7 


6 


80 


D.N.C. 


30 


16 


13 


13 


10 


9 


9 


9 


9 


7 


70 


D.N.C. 


44 


22 


18 


17 


15 


12 


12 


12 


11 


9 


60 


D.N.C. 


60 


28 


25 


19 


18 


14 


14 


14 


16 


11 


50 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


50 


35 


28 


23 


20 


18 


16 


17 


14 


40 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


47 


39 


27 


24 


24 


18 


25 


17 


30 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


42 


32 


29 


26 


20 


30 


27 


20 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


60 


50 


38 


31 


23 


34 


37 


10 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


130 


69 


45 


40 


50 


67 





D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


75 


D.N.C. 


70 



Table 42. The Manikin Test. Percentiles. Score. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


Per Cents. 
















100 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


90 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


80 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


70 


3 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


60 


3 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


50 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


40 


2 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


30 


2 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


20 


2 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


10 





3 


4 


4 


4 


3 


4 














1 


2 


3 


3 



195 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 



Table 43. The Feature Profile Test. Percentiles. 



Age 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


Per 
























Cents. 
























100 


225 


90 


50 


20 


40 


40 


30 


30 


30 


30 




90 


D.N.C. 


212 


135 


148 


75 


71 


61 


55 


49 


70 




80 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


172 


212 


116 


79 


85 


78 


66 


99 




70 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


236 


260 


155 


111 


106 


106 


89 


102 




60 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


196 


133 


133 


131 


111 


108 




50 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


240 


157 


170 


150 


132 


150 


110 


40 


D.N.C. 


U.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


281 


192 


224 


180 


139 


208 




30 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


300+ 


224 


300+ 


266 


191 


285 




20 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


299 


D.N.C. 


300+ 


241 


300+ 




10 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


300+ 


D.N.C. 







D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 





Table 44. The Ship Test. Percentiles. Score. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Per 
























Cents. 
























100 


17 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


90 


14 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


80 


11 


18 


18 


19 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


70 


5 


17 


17 


18 


19 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


60 





15 


16 


18 


19 


19 


20 


20 


20 


19 


20 


50 





15 


15 


17 


18 


18 


19 


20 


20 


18 


19 


40 





13 


13 


16 


18 


18 


18 


19 


20 


18 


18 


30 





10 


11 


15 


17 


17 


18 


18 


19 


17 


18 


20 





5 


8 


14 


16 


16 


17 


17 


17 


17 


17 


10 








3 


3 


15 


14 


16 


16 


17 


16 


17 

















3 


9 


14 


8 


16 


13 


16 



196 



THE PERCENTILE METHOD 



Table 45. The Pictuke Completion Test. 
Percentiles. Score. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ad. 


Per 


























Cents. 


























100 


394 


525 


646 


646 


646 


646 


646 


646 


646 


646 


646 


646 


90 


259 


354 


463 


507 


577 


578 


583 


583 


646 


646 


646 


646 


80 


207 


260 


364 


446 


499 


522 


578 


578 


581 


578 


583.5 


583 


70 


169 


219 


318 


422.5 


450 


509 


519 


547 


566 


570 


577.5 


578 


60 


126 


185 


263 


381 


440 


478 


501 


509 


515 


521.5 


567 


569 


50 


89 


153 


239 


328 


407 


435 


455.5 


493 


505 


515 


525 


515 


40 


49 


99 


189 


296 


372 


411 


443 


445 


494 


501 


501 


509 


30 


28 


76 


153 


261 


325 


367 


411 


407 


446 


444 


444 


469 


20 


5 


62 


107 


201.5 


297 


313 


369 


369 


417 


415 


380 


441 


10 


2 


14 


60 


129 


240 


251 


296 


313 


310 


366 


329 


360 














3 


62 


35 


122 


36 


47 


106 


144 


162 



Table 46. The Substitution Test. Percentiles. Score. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


250 


150 


100 


90 


80 


70 


60 


60 


60 


60 


90 


280 


175 


147 


116 


109 


92 


79 


78 


75 


78 


80 


360 


212 


160 


133 


121 


100 


92 


88 


82 


85 


70 


600 


233 


168 


144 


126 


108 


96 


95 


89 


90 


60 


600 


265 


177 


152 


133 


116 


101 


100 


93 


95 


50 


600 


290 


180 


158 


141 


123 


107 


106 


96 


99 


40 


600 


333 


210 


168 


152 


129 


113 


111 


100 


110 


30 


D.N.C. 


365 


239 


188 


158 


137 


119 


117 


107 


116 


20 


D.N.C. 


400 


278 


. 206 


173 


146 


125 


125 


119 


124 


10 


D.N.C. 


500 


300 


221 


190 


165 


146 


143 


135 


143 





D.N.C. 


D.N.C. 


600 


D.N.C. 


219 


300 


180 


190 


170 


160 



197 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 



Table 47. The Adaptation Board. Percentiles. 
Moves. 



Age 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Per Cents. 






















100 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


90 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


80 


3 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


70 


2 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


60 


2 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


50 


2 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


40 


2 


3 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


30 


1 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


20 


1 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


4 


10 


1 


1 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 





1 








1 


1 


1 


3 


3 


3 


3 



Table 48. The Cube Test. Percentiles. 



Age 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


Ad. 


Per 




































Cents. 




































100 






6 


8 


10 


9 


10 


10 


11 


10 


11 


11 


11 


12 






11 


90 






5 


6 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


10 






10 


80 






4 


6 


6 


7 


7' 


8 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 






10 


70 






4 


5 


6 


6 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


8 


8 


9 






9 


60 






3 


4 


5 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


7 


8 


7 


8 






8 


50 


1 


1 


2 


4 


5 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


8 


7 


8 


9 


10 


8 


40 






2 


4 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


6 


7 






8 


30 






1 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


6 


7 


6 


7 






7 


20 






1 


3 


4 


5 


4 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


5 


6 






7 


10 






1 


1 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


6 






6 















2 


1 


2 


2 


1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


5 






4 



198 



THE PERCENTILE METHOD 

actual cases tested by the scale. At present we 
may refer to one obvious drawback of the method 
as applied to some of our tests. When some con- 
tiguous percentile points show the same scores, the 
question arises as to what percentile rank should 
be assigned to the score in question. For example, 
in Table 44 we note that at age eleven the 60, 70, 
80, 90 and 100 percentile points are all the same, 
i.e., a score of 20. If an eleven-year-old child scores 
20 on this test, what percentile rank are we to 
assign to him? There seem to be two possibilities. 
We may, in the first place, give him the rank which 
is the median of these four percentiles, i.e., 75. Or, 
secondly, we. may give him the lowest percentile 
rank, i.e., 60, arguing that a 60 percentile eleven- 
year-old child can do such a performance, and that, 
therefore, such a performance is a 60 percentile 
type of performance for eleven-year-olds. This lat- 
ter method would of course penalize the bright child 
on a test where a perfect performance is a relatively 
easy performance for him. The first method of 
allowing the median percentile rank is open to the 
objection of allowing too much credit to some chil- 
dren, although it is less severe on the really bright 
child. 

Similar percentile points tend to occur in all 
tests which do not allow of fine gradations. They 
are very rare in time tests, rather uncommon in 
tests showing the number of moves or errors, but 
very common in tests having a limited range of 
scores. Table 44 may be taken as a sample of this 

199 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

phenomenon where the similar percentile points 
occur in the upper percentiles and in the higher 
ages. The children, however bright, cannot make 
higher scores, because at a score of 20 the test stops. 
Table 43 shows the converse of this. Here D.N.C. 
score appears in the lower percentiles and at the 
lower ages. The children fail on the test and we 
do not discriminate among different kinds of fail- 
ure. Tables 48 and 28 show a scattering of similar 
percentiles all over the tables. Tables 47 and 42 
show the most pronounced cases of similar per- 
centile points. This is due to the fact that the 
range of scores is merely from to 5. To make 
tests adaptable to the percentile method, it may- 
prove desirable to devise means for a finer dif- 
ferentiation of the performances on such tests, i.e., 
adopt a finer system of scoring. Tests of this type, 
with a narrow range, are best adapted to a year 
scale, since they do not discriminate between many 
age groups. In the final perfection of a percentile 
scale it may prove desirable to limit the scope of 
these tests and refuse to give any credit to a per- 
fect score above certain ages. In such a case the 
test would be omitted from the scale and the median 
or average percentile rank of the other tests would 
be taken. For example, in the Manikin Test 
(Table 42) a perfect score at any age above five 
is hardly discriminative. It might prove best to 
omit such a test with all children age six and 
above making a perfect score. Conversely a 
D.N.C. score on the Feature Profile Test is not 

200 



THE PERCENTILE METHOD 

discriminative from age nine downwards and a 
similar procedure might be adopted here. 

This last point suggests the great advantage of 
the percentile method in the omission and admis- 
sion of tests. As in the median mental age method, 
we are able to add and subtract te^ts much more 
readily than with the year or point scales. To be 
sure, the establishment of norms of percentile ranks 
for all ages is the desirable goal of this method and 
would require a standardization based on the same 
tests for all children, but we need not wait for such 
norms for rough diagnostic purposes. Thi^ possi- 
bility of the addition and subtraction of tests^ives 
a great flexibility to the scale. 



CHAPTER IX 

ILLUSTRATIVE CASES 

This chapter will deal with two sample cases 
tested on the complete scale, with the results worked 
out by all four methods of computing mental age. 
Figures 13 and 14 show the two records of the cases, 
with the mentality computed by all the four 
methods. Our record blank is so arranged that a 
worker may use any or all of the four methods 
for arriving at the mentality of the case. 

Figure 13 shows the record of Arthur S., a fif- 
teen-year-old boy, who is in the fifth grade of school. 
The record for time, errors, moves and score for 
the fifteen tests is shown under the column headed 
"Record." All the data actually required for 
further elaboration is found in the vertical column 
directly under the heading "Record." Additional 
space is provided in several tests for the scoring 
of the test or for time records that may be required. 
Thus, in Test 2, we take the record of the first, 
second and third trials, although only the shortest 
trial is required for the scale. In Tests 9, 11 and 
12 space is provided for the time, although we have 
not deemed it wise to take this into account in scor- 
ing the tests. For Test 12 further space is pro- 

202 



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203 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

vided, at the bottom of the blank, for recording 
the moves made and for filling in the score value. 
In Test 13 space is provided for time and errors, 
from which two values the score is computed. In 
Tests 14 and 15 the moves are recorded, either plus 
or minus, during the progress of the test, and the 
final score is in each case the number of moves 
correct. 

By reference to Table 23, p. 152, we are able to 
fill in the column headed "Median IVIental Age." 
The figures in this column give the approximate 
mental ages to which the performances opposite to 
them correspond. Thus, on the Mare and Foal 
Test, Time, the boy makes a performance equal to 
that of a median sixteen-year-old, whereas the qual- 
ity of his performance (one error) is about equal 
to that of a 13.5-year-old child; and so on down 
the column. The mental ages on the tests vary 
from 7 to 16. The poorest performances are on 
the Diagonal Test, the Healy "A" and the Mani- 
kin. His best performances are on the Mare and 
Foal (Time) and the Two Figure Board (Moves) . 
The median of all the 22 mental ages is a mental 
age of 10.25, which is an interpolated median be- 
tween 9.5 and 11. 

The computation of the mentality according to 
the percentile method is shown under the column 
headed "Percentile." The values are found by 
reference to the tables of percentiles ( Tables 27 to 
48) . The time on the Mare and Foal Test is about 
equal to an 83 percentile for fourteen-year-old 

204 



ILLUSTRATIVE CASES 

boys.^ One error on this test is about a 70 per- 
centile performance. The performance on the 
Seguin is zero, since it is below the lowest record. 
The rest of the percentiles have been obtained 
in the same way. It will be noted that rough in- 
terpolations between ten percentile points given 
in the tables have been made. Wherever the val- 
ues were the same for several contiguous percentile 
points we have taken the median percentile value. 
Thus in Test 11 a score of 18 is found at both the 
30 and 40 percentiles and so we have recorded a 
percentile performance of 35. The final value is 
a median percentile of all the percentile points 
recorded. It is again an interpolated median be- 
tween 40 and 42. This median percentile of 41 
means that on the scale as a whole the child's per- 
formance is somewhat below the median. 

The point scale method is illustrated by the 
figures under the column headed "Points." The 
values for each test are obtained from Table 25, 
and the total number of points, 484, corresponds 
to a mental age of 11.2 by reference to Table 26. 
This value, 11.2, we have designated "Point Age," 
M'hich means the mental age obtained by the point 
scale method. 

The year scale method is illustrated on our blanks 
and has been filled out as previously explained in 
Chapter V. It will be noted that the basal age of 

^ We have used age fourteen or lower ages in working out 
the percentiles, where data for age fifteen or higher were not 
available. 

205 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

the case is 8, but the boy makes additional credits 
in other years to the extent of 5.23 years and this 
brings his mental age up to 13.2. 

We thus have three mental ages and a percentile 
estimate. The three mental ages are: 

Median Mental Age 10.25 

Point Age 11.2 

Mental Age (Year Scale) 13.2 

Which of these is the most significant and which 
is the truest estimate of the child's mentality can- 
not be determined at present. 

This case was also tested on the Yerkes-Bridges 
Point Scale. He scored 63 points, which gives him 
a mental age of 10.8 (using the combined norms 
of the authors) and gives him a CM. A. of .79. 
The mental age of 10.8 on this scale lies between 
the median mental age of 10.25 and the point age 
of 11.2 on our scale. 

The next record shown in Figure 14 is that of 
another fifteen-year-old boy. Looking down the 
records of the tests we note at once a decidedly 
inferior performance as contrasted with the pre- 
vious case. There are five tests which he fails to 
complete. 

The median mental age is about 5. The median 
actually falls between 5 and — 6. The ages for the 
different tests fluctuate between — 5 and 10. The 
great number of minus quantities shows the need 
for norms of younger children and for simpler 

206 











































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207 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

tests. It is interesting to note that the highest men- 
tal ages are obtained by the performance on the 
Healy Puzzle "A." We have discussed previously 
the degree of chance entering into this test, and 
this record seems to be a good example of this 
factor. 

The median percentile is 0. There are 15 out 
of the 22 performances in which a is scored. This 
score of shows the case to belong to the very 
poorest of fifteen-year-olds and we may take this 
record to mean feeble-mindedness. 

The total points scored by the point scale 
method is 118, which is equivalent to a point age of 
about 5.5. 

The year scale record shows that the case ob- 
tained a basal age of 4 and additional credits to 
the extent of 2.05 years, which brings his mental 
age up to* 6.05. 

The three mental ages according to the different 
methods are: 

Median Mental Age 5 

Point Age 5.5 

Mental Age (Year Scale) 6.05 

The Yerkes-Bridges test of this boy shows a 
score of 25, which is equivalent to a mental age of 
5.4 with a C.M.A. of .31. In this case the Yerkes- 
Bridges record agrees closely with the point age. 

The discussion of these two cases will have made 
clear the method of keeping the record sheet and 

208 



ILLUSTRATIVE CASES 

of computing the different mental ages. Just 
which of the different methods is the best it is im-' 
possible to tell at this time. The practical worker 
cannot, of course, be expected to work out the 
results for all four methods, but, nevertheless, we 
have made it possible to use any method on our 
record sheet. When we have accumulated a suffi- 
cient number of complete records a study of these 
different methods will be made. 



CHAPTER X 

CONCLUSION 

We shall attempt in this concluding chapter to 
summarize briefly the main points covered in the 
preceding chapters. 

1. A scale of performance tests as a means of 
estimating mentality is needed for those children 
who are deficient or wanting in language.. 

2. Such a scale is the only means that can be 
used to measure the intelligence of the deaf, the 
speech defective and the non-English speaking 
individual. 

3. Language ability is not uniformly correlated 
with general intelligence and, therefore, a scale of 
performance tests will be a useful supplement to 
other scales which depend entirely or in part upon 
language responses. 

4. The need for a more adequate standardiza- 
tion of most of the performance tests in common 
use has led to an effort on our part to supply 
this deficiency. 

5. The value of such performance tests is greatly 
enhanced when they are grouped together in some 
kind of a scale. 

6. The results of the tests are presented in tables 

210 



CONCLUSION 

of disti'ibution so that additional results may be 
added from time to time and the reliability of the 
norms thereby increased. 

7. Four different methods of arriving at an in- 
dex of mental ability have been discussed. 

8. The year scale method has the advantage of 
leading to a result that is easy to interpret, but 
it has the disadvantage of requiring a great many 
different tests. This would make the scale un- 
wieldy and would lengthen, beyond practical limits, 
the time taken to examine a case. 

9. We have attempted to construct with our tests 
a modified type of year scale. This type of year 
scale differs somewhat from the type of year scale 
in common use. This difference is necessary if we 
are to overcome the disadvantages in the year scale 
method mentioned in the preceding section. 

10. The median mental age method is simple in 
computation and permits the addition or subtrac- 
tion of tests without dislocating the whole scale. 
Difficulties arise when the medians are the same 
for several consecutive ages. The diagnostic sig- 
nificance of the median mental age has yet to be 
determined. 

11. The point scale method has been subjected 
to a discussion in order to find out the most satis- 
factory underlying principle upon which to base 
a point scale. The result seems to lead back to a 
method closely akin to the median mental age 
method and one showing no superiority over that 
method. 

211 



A SCALE OF PERFORMANCE TESTS 

12. A point scale has been constructed on the 
principle of the allotment of the same number of 
points to each test, although the value of this 
method of procedure is doubtful. 

13. The percentile method seems to offer the 
best possibilities for future work. The percentile 
division used can be made as small as the delicacy 
of the tests will warrant. This method is especially 
desirable because it permits us to compare an indi- 
vidual's performance with the performances of 
other individuals of the same age. It would seem 
at present, however, to require, for purposes of 
standardization, a very great number of unselected 
individuals at each age. 

14. These different methods lead to different 
estimates of mentality for the same individual. 
Which leads to the truest estimate of intelligence 
is a problem still to be solved. 

15. The correlation of this scale with scales of 
the Yerkes or Binet type has not yet been at- 
tempted. Whether a scale of performance tests or 
a mixed scale of performance and language tests 
will yield the best estimate of intelligence has yet 
to be determined. 

« 

From the nature of these concluding remarks it 
should be obvious that we have attempted to avoid 
being dogmatic upon the subject of scales and 
methods of testing intelligence. We feel keenly 
that the present stage of development of the work 
of mental testing is one in which all methods and 

212 



CONCLUSION 

devices must be tried in order to lead to more and 
more accurate work. Any attempt to set up one 
scale or method as perfect would merely serve to 
retard the splendid progress that this branch of 
psychology has made within the last decade. In 
accordance with this belief we have presented our 
work in many different forms, with the result that 
no one cut-and-dried method lies ready for the 
mere "mental tester." For the practical psycholo- 
gist, however, we would recommend the median 
mental age method, because of its simplicity and 
because it enables the examiner to see at a glance 
whether the subject's performances on the various 
tests have been uniform or erratic. The examiner, 
however, must always exercise great caution in the 
interpretation of his final result. 

We are well aware of the tentative nature of our 
work and only too conscious of what still remains 
to be done. We shall feel amply repaid if we 
have made one step forward in the construction 
of a different type of scale for the measurement 
of mental ability. 



INDEX OF AUTHORS 



/.NDERSON, 61, 62, 94, 132 
Ayres, 12 

-Bagley, 6 

BiNET, 2, 6, 7, 8, 82, 34, 86, 
88, 144 

BoBERTAG, 8, 82, 85 

Sridges, 11, 17, 19, 73, 85, 
159, 161, 180 
ronner, 51, 52 
i-RUCKNER, 50, 95, 124 
Burt, 3 

Childs, 82, 85, 86, 144 
COLER, 19, 73 

De Sanctis, 87 
Dunham, 95 

Ebbinghaus, 3 

Fernald, 13, 26, 44 
Fischer, 83 
Freeman, 44 

Glueck, 24, 58 

GoDDARD, 23, 24, 32, 65, 66, 

82, 85 
GwYN, 24, 40 

Haines, 161 

Hall, 48, 49, 50, 92 

Hardwick, 11, 19, 73, 159, 

180 
Hart, 3 



Healy, 13, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24, 
26, 28, 29, 44, 46, 47, 
48, 88, 90, 91, 123 

Johnston, 8 

Kelley, 22 

Kempf, 24, 42, 55 

Kent, 17 

King, 50, 95, 124 

Kite, 2, 6 

Knox, 14, 23, 24, 37, 38, 39, 

40, 41, 42, 55, 56, 58, 67, 

68, 88, 130, 131 
Kohs, 4, 9 
Kuhlmann, 4, 9, 13, 82, 85 

Martin, 88 
Meumann, 2, 7 

Norsworthy, 31 

Otis, 3 

Paterson, 4, 10, 15, 20, 23, 
32, 34, 56, 65, 87 

Pintner, 4, 10, 15, 20, 23, 
24, 32, 35, 53, 56, 6l, 62, 
65, 67, 68, 69, 76, 82, 87, 
94, 132 

Saffiotti, 86, 87 

Schmitt, 29, 46, 47, 48, 90, 

91 
Simon, 2, 6, 86 



215 



INDEX OF AUTHORS 



Simpson, 75 
Spearman, 3 
Stenquist, ip 
Stern, 2, 1, 10, 85, 168 
Strong, 73 

Sylvester, 23, 30, 31, 32, 93, 
9,4 

Terman, 11, 51, 82, 85, 86, 

144 
Thorndike, 19 
Town, 8 
Trabue, 19 



Treves, 86, 87 
Twitmeyer, 23 

Wallin, 9, 31, 32, 74 
Wells, 24, 63, 71 
Whipple, 2, 5, 32, 85, 96, 168 
Winch, 9, 85 
WoODWORTH, 24, 63, 71 
WooLLEY, 83, 88, 185 

Yerkes, 11, 17, 19, 73, 85, 

159, 161, 180 
Young, 32, 72, 75, 94 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS 



Adaptation Board, 24, 65ff, 
lS5ff, 170 
percentiles for, 198 
Arrow Board, 95 

Binet-Simon Scale, 8fF, 15fF, 
82, 84ff, 139, 144, 171 
Goddard's revision of, 8, 85 
language tests in, 12fF 
Stanford Revision of, llfF, 
85 

Casuist Form Board, 24, 37iF, 
78fr, 112ff 
percentiles for, 191, 192 
picture of, 38 
Central tendency, 3 
Cube Test, 24, 67fF, 94, 136iF, 
165, 170 
percentiles for, 198 

Deaf, measurement of men- 
tality of, 19if 

Substitution Test for, 64 
Dependent children, mental- 
ity of, 19 
De Sanctis' Scale, 87 
Diagonal Test, 24, 42fF, 119ff 

percentiles for, 193, 194 

picture of, 41 
Distribution, tables of, 97ff 



Feature Profile Test, 24, 53, 
55ff, 58, 129ir, 200 



Feature Profile Test, percen- 
tiles for, 196 
picture of, 57 
Five Figure Board, 23, 34ff, 
79ir, 105ff 
percentiles for, 189, 190 
picture of, 35 

Healy Puzzle "A", 24, 44ff, 
77; 95,'122ff 
percentiles for, 194, 195 
picture of, 45 

Individual differences, 4 
Intelligence, definition of, 2ff, 
21 

Language tests, 13ff 

Manikin Test, 24, 53fr, 56, 
58, 127fF, 200 
method of scoring, 55 
percentiles for, 195 
picture of, 45 
Mare and Foal Picture Board, 
23, 25fr, 58, 99fl' 
percentiles for, 188 
picture of, 27 
Median Mental Age, 15 Iff, 
173, 206 
scoring table for, 152 

Norms, stability of, 76ff 



Percentile method, 83ff, 184fF 
tables for, 188ff 



217 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS 



Picture Completion Test, 24, 
6lfF, 95, 132 

percentiles for, 197 

picture of, 62 
Point Age, 205 
Point Scale, for the blind, l6l 

norms for, 179 

scoring table for, 176, 177 

theory of, 159fF 

Yerkes-Bridges, 11, 19, 85, 
159fF, 171, 206 

Record Blank, 146, 149, 203, 
207 

Seguin Form Board, 23, 30fF, 
34, 93ff, 102iF 
percentiles for, 189 
Ship Test, 24, 58fF, 131fF 
. percentiles for, 196 

picture of, 60 
Social status, differences in, 
73fr 



Standardization, of tests, 2, 
70ir, 89ff 
problem of, 11 
various types of, 8 Iff 
Substitution Test, 23, 24, 
63 ff, 133ff 
percentiles for, 197 
picture of, 64 

Tests, criteria for selection 

of, 21ff 
Triangle Test, 24, 28, 40ff, 
115ff, 163 
percentiles for, 192, 193 
picture of, 41 
Two Figure Board, 23, 35ff, 
80ff, 108ff 
percentiles for, 190, 191 
picture of, 36 

Year Scale, 139ff 

record blank for, 146, 149 
table of credits for, 142 



(1) 



